Study Questions

Features of Plants

1. What are the properties that distinguish plant from animal cells?

2. What are the components of the cell wall? What advantages does the presence of the wall give a plant? What human benefits come from cell walls?

3. Briefly summarize photosynthesis. Include in your answer a) how light energy is conserved and b) the role of the enzyme rubisco.

4. What are the functions of the vacuole? What human benefits are derived from vacuoles?

5. Where do roots originate? How do plants take up water from the soil?

6. What is the difference between xylem and phloem?

7. What is the difference between taproots and fibrous roots? What types of plants are likely to have each type? What is the advantage of each type of root system to a plant?

8. What is the primary function of the stem? Give some examples (six) of modified stems and their functions.

9. What anatomical features describe a leaf? What is the difference between a simple and compound leaf? What are some common leaf modifications?

10. Sketch a flower and label all the parts. What is the function of anthers and ovaries? What is the difference between pollination and fertilization? What are some common mechanisms of pollination?

11. What is the evolutionary importance of self-pollination compared with cross-pollination? Does this difference have any practical importance in agriculture?

12. What part of the flower becomes the seed and what part the fruit?

13. What is the 'purpose' of the fruit? Give some examples of fruit dispersal strategies. Describe how the success of the cattle business in west Texas also lead to the widespread colonization of mesquite trees.

Variation, Selection and Evolution

14. Who was Charles Darwin? What are the major contentions of his idea of evolution by natural selection? What parts of Darwin's theory depend on chance? What parts are not governed by chance events?

15. Describe three lines of evidence that support Darwin's theory. Can you think of any evidence that does not support his theory?

16. Explain the roles of mutations and genetic recombination (meiosis) in leading to variation in natural populations?

17. Define evolution in the context of the gene pool. What is the difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation. Explain how polyploidy leads to speciation in plants.

18. In agriculture, how are most 'hybrid' strains produced? Why is it counterproductive to re-use seeds produced from these hybrid strains?

19. Discuss methods for the asexual propagation of plants. Why is this (generally) a good idea?

20. Who was Theophrastus? Dioscorides? Linnaeus? What were their contributions to the history of botany? What was the Doctrine of Signatures?

Origin of Agriculture

21. Roughly what percentage of modern human history was devoted to hunting and gathering? Agriculture?

22. How is carbon dating used to study the remains of plant material found at archeological sites? How are specific plant species identified?

23. List 2-3 crop species that are characteristically found in Near East sites (Iran, Iraq, Turkey)? What about in the Far East (China, Thailand)? What crop plants are characteristic of the new world?

24. Briefly explain the process of artificial selection using corn as an example.

25. Who was Nikolai Vavilov? What was the evidence for and reasoning behind his proposed 'centers of origin of cultivated plants'?

26. Explain the 'gene-poor' 'gene-rich' dichotomy discussed in class. Why is this important for both developing and technologically advanced societies?

Fruits and Nuts

27. Define (or otherwise identify) the following terms: simple pistil, compound pistil, carpel, pericarp (exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp), involucre, parthenocarpy, inferior and superior ovary.

28. What are the differences between a simple fruit, a compound fruit and an aggregate fruit? Give an example of each.

29. What are indehiscent and dehiscent fruits? Give an example of each.

30. Discuss the evolutionary importance of mature fruit type and seed dispersal. How has artificial selection altered this relationship in economically important plant species?

31. Identify and characterize some economically important plants from the following families: Rosaceae (Rose Family), Ericaceae (Heath Family), Vitaceae (Grape Family), Oleaceae (Olive Family), Rutaceae (Citrus Family), Cucurbitaceae (Squash or Pumpkin Family), Solanaceae (Nightshade family), Bromeliaceae (Pineapple Family), Malvaceae (Mallow or Cotton Family).

32. Define (or otherwise identify) the following terms, phrases and people: John Chapman, guava, stone cell, amygdalin/laetrile, Maraschino cherry, oleuropein, Kiwi Fruit, Pecan, hazelnut, almonds, pistachio, citrus oil glands, scurvy, Navel orange, "Limeys", frost tolerance of citrus, citron, Buddha's Hand, pummelo, Christopher Columbus, winter and summer squash, gourds, chayote, luffa, Colonel Robert Gibbon Johnson, Capsicum, atropine, coconut products, J.D. Dole, bromelain, ethylene and bananas, gumbo, okra, star fruit, passion fruit, guava, durian, macadamia, brazil nut

Grasses

33. What grasses were associated with the development of major civilizations in the Near East, Far East and in the New World?

34. Roughly what percentages of known species of grasses are used as food crops today?

35. Identify the following features of grass plants: culm, tiller, rhizome, stolon, inflorescence, spikelet, floret (bract).

36. What are the three parts of the fruit of a grass? What is the economic importance of each?

37. What is winnowing? Threshing?

38. What characteristic is used to follow the lineage of the various types of wheat?

39. Why is rye a poor grain to use in bread making? Why is wheat a good choice?

40. What is triticale?

41. Why is a diet consisting of polished rice alone a bad idea? What plant could you add to the meal to make it more nutritious?

42. What anatomical features make corn different from other grasses? What is the silk of a corn inflorescence?

Legumes

43. Why are legumes (such as soybean) planted in alternate years with crops such as rice?

44.  Briefly describe the role of Rhizobium bacteria in the life of a legume. Include in your answer: nodule, nitrogenase, leghemoglobin, ATP, bacteroid, N₂ and NH₄.

45. Why is the yield of a crop of soybeans generally less than a comparable crop of corn or rice?

46. A protein extracted from soybeans has been used as a diet aid. Explain how it (supposedly) works.

47. What causes flatulence? Is there any way to minimize this response?

48. Briefly describe some of the following soybean products: miso, tofu, soy sause, TVP, biodiesel.

49. Briefly describe the contributions to economic botany of the following individuals: John Harvey Kellogg, J.J. Rosefield, George Washington Carver, St. John the Baptist.

Leaves, Stems and Roots

50. List two reasons why leaves are generally not good sources of food. If you do eat a leaf, when is a better time to harvest?

51. List at least one common leafy food crop that is a member of the following plant families: Brassicaceae (Mustard Family), Asteraceae (Sunflower Family), Apiaceae (Carrot Family) and Chenopodiaceae (Goosefoot Family).

52. Why are stem crops that arise directly from the apical meristem likely to be more palatable than from a lateral meristem (e.g. vascular cambium)?

53. Why do onions make us cry?

54. What was the role of the fungus, Phytophthora infestans, in the immigration of the Irish to the USA and other countries?

55. Give four examples of common root crops.

Stimulating Beverages

56. Briefly explain the effects that caffeine has on the CNS.

57. What are some characteristics of coffee plants? Cacao? Plant family? Fruit type? Climate for growth?

58. Explain the controversy regarding the planting of sun-tolerant and shade-tolerant coffee.

59. What are some similarities in the processing of coffee and cacao?

60. How is tea harvested and processed? What is the main difference between green and black tea?

61. List some characteristics of maté and guaraná.

Alcoholic Beverages

62. What features of the chemical structure of alcohol make it easy to circulate in the bloodstream and penetrate body tissues? Briefly outline the effects of alcohol on the CNS.

63. What is the legal limit for blood alcohol level in Arkansas? How many standard drinks does it take for a 150 person to reach this limit?

64. What is the impact of acetaldehyde on alcohol metabolism? How is acetaldehyde synthesized?

65. Briefly outline the metabolic steps in alcoholic fermentation. How is knowledge of fermentation useful in wine making?

66. What was the role of American grapes in the world wine industry?

67. What are the main ingredients in wine making? Beer making? What is the difference in making 'still' wine and making Champagne?

Hydrogels, Latexes and Resins

68. What is a hydrogel? Why is it a useful product when added to ice cream or toothpaste?

69. Acacia senegal and Cyamopsis tetragonolubus are the sources for gum arabic and guar gum, respectively. Why are these trees also good candidates for planting in agro-forestry schemes?

70. The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) is in what plant family? How are latexes stored and secreted in this family? Why do plants in this family produce latex?

71. What is vulcanization? Who invented this process?

Herbs & Spices

72. Generally speaking, what is the difference between a herb and a spice?

73. What is the chemical nature of the compounds found in herbs? From what part of the plant are they released? What are some roles of these compounds in nature?

74. Briefly explain how a desire for spices impacted the political development of Europe and the New World.

75. Identify the part of the plant that produces the following spices: cinnamon, pepper, cloves, nutmeg and mace, saffron, vanilla.

76. What are the four primary herb-producing plant families? (Common names OK.) Identify one herb from each family.

77. Explain how mustard gets its 'tang'.

Medicinal Plants

78. Briefly identify the roles of the following individuals in the history of medicine: Pun-tsao, Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Paracelcus, William Withering, Fredrich Serturner.

79. Give an overview of the importance of plants as medicines, both in the USA and Western Europe. Compare this to other countries such as China and India. What evidence supports the contention that knowledge of medicinal plants and plant products is becoming  more important worldwide.

80. What are the two classes of compounds in plants known for their medical value. Give two examples of each class of compounds.

81.How was the drug, aspirin discovered? What medicinal properties does it have? What is the natural role of aspirin (actually a derivative called salicylic acid) in plants?

82. What medical plant is used to treat malaria? What part of the plant is used? What is the native range of this plant? What is the specific mechanism of action of this medication? Is it a 'cure' for malaria?

83. What has the National Cancer Institute done to help discover plants with anti-tumor activities? Give two examples of discovered plants.

Psychoactive Plants

84. Explain how one plant can be medicinal, psychoactive and toxic.

85. List four families that include psychoactive plants.

86. What is the difference between a CNS agonist and an antagonist? What is the importance of this knowledge in understanding how psychoactive plants have their effects?

87. What part of the Opium Poppy is collected to make raw opium? What are traditional ways that opium is consumed? What was the 'Soldier's Disease' of the American Civil war?

88. What are the two major alkaloids in opium? How do they affect the CNS (see question 86)?

89. What is the difference between morphine and heroin?

90. If you were going to grow Cannabis as a psychoactive plant (don't do that!!), how would you maximize production of high yield marijuana?

91. Identify the following terms: bhang, ganja, charas, hashish, THC. Why, after consuming marijuana, will you likely fail a drug test even many days after the event?

92. Outline arguments for and against the use of medical marijuana.

93. What impact has chewing coca leaves had on the cultural and political life of South America? What compound is present in the Coca leaf that is responsible for the effect? How was the extraction of this compound maximized during the chewing process?

94. Describe the process that results in the availability of cocaine on the streets of America starting from Coca plantations in South America.

95. What is the native range of tobacco plants? Explain the impact of tobacco on the development of colonial America.

Poisonous & Allergy Plants

96. What toxic substance comes from plants in the Strychnos genus? How does it cause death?

97. Explain the connection between toxic compounds in milkweeds and the survival of Monarch butterflies.

98. Why are oleanders and azaleas toxic? What parts of each plant should be specifically avoided?

99. What is the chemical nature of the toxic element in Castor Bean? How does it function? Why has it been used in bioterrorism?

100. If the family dog eats leaves from this common house plant, it's tongue will swell up. What is the plant and why does this happen?

101. What compound is derived from the roots of the tropical vine, Derris elliptica? What is it commonly used for?

102. What type of products have been made from Neem oil? Where is the center of origin for this plant?

103. Goldenrod is not responsible for hay fever, whereas ragweed is a major cause in Arkansas and around the USA. Explain why.

104. Where does urushiol come from? Why should you avoid it?

105. Explain the connection between the use of Guayule (Parthenium argentatum) as an alternate source of natural rubber and the internment of Japanese-Americans during World War II.

Fibers

106. What are the chemical differences between plant and animal-derived fibers? Explain how this knowledge influences how garments made from these fibers are treated.

107. What are the three classes of fibers? How are they similar? Different?

108. Describe traditional methods for fiber extraction.

109. Review the different types of cotton. What make high quality cotton? What are the steps in cotton farming and harvest? Why is cotton modified prior to being used in thread/cloth manufacture?

110. What is a mordant? Why is it needed?

111. Review the steps in tanning hides? What are the two major sources of commercial tannins?

Wood and Wood Products

112. What is the anatomical nature of wood?

113. How is wood produced as a tree grows?

114.What is the difference between heartwood and sapwood? Hardwood and softwood?

115. Why does the bark of a tree split as it grows?

116. How do gymnosperm and angiosperm trees differ with respect to the cellular composition of wood?

117. How can an examination of springwood and summerwood be used to investigate climactic change?

118. What type of wood found in Arkansas has the highest heating value?

119. What kinds of plants (be specific) have been used traditionally to make paper? What parts of these plants have been used?

120. What is 'real' paper. How is it made?

121. What is the controversy about 'acid' paper? How is it being addressed?

122. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of clear-cutting as a forest management strategy.

123.List two tree species used in agroforestry. Why are these species good choices?

Green Revolution & Beyond

124. Outline the approaches used to increase agricultural productivity in the "Green Revolution".

125. Why was knowledge of the work of Gregor Mendel important when selecting new varieties of crops?

126. Who was Dr. Norman Borlaug? List three major accomplishments in his career.

127. What is lodging? Why is this a problem in grain production? How can it be overcome?

128. What crop characteristics (other than those associated with lodging) are selected for in plant breeding programs? Are there any alternatives to traditional plant breeding? Describe how these alternatives work and what they depend on to be successful.

129. List five factors that have limited the Green Revolution from having solved the world's food production problem.

130. What new approaches are being tried to feed humanity in light of the points made in question 115?

131. What are the lessons from the Irish Potato Famine of the 1840's? What aspects of modern crop production are similar? What can we do to prevent a new famine?