(234-1207)  Crisis Phase (January 1, 1912-July 4, 1924):  Jose Maria (Miguel Lucena) Boaventura began a rebellion against the government in the Contestado region of Santa Catarina in southern Brazil in 1912.  Government soldiers led by General Fernando Setembrino de Carvalho suppressed the rebellion in December 1917.  Some 20,000 individuals were killed during the rebellion.  Arturo da Silva Bernardes of the Republican Party of Minas (Partido Republicano Mineiro - PRM) was elected president on March 1, 1922, and he was inaugurated as president on November 15, 1922. The government of President Epitacio Pessoa suppressed a military rebellion led by Lt. Antonio de Siqueira Campos and Captain Euclides Hermes da Fonseca at Fort Copacaban in Rio de Janeiro on July 5-6, 1922, resulting in the deaths of 16 rebel soldiers. Thirty-five government soldiers were killed or wounded during the rebellion. Conflict broke out between supporters of Governor Borges de Medeiros (Chimangos) and opponents (Maragatos) led by Joaquim Francisco de Assis Brasil in the state of Rio Grande do Sul on January 25, 1923. The federal government extended the state-of-siege for eight months on May 3, 1923. The parties agreed to a cessation of military hostilities in Rio Grande do Sul on November 7, 1923, and signed a peace agreement on December 15, 1923. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(234-1208) Conflict Phase (July 5, 1924-February 4, 1927): Colonel Isidor Dias Lopes and Joaquim Tavora led a military rebellion of 3,500 troops against the government in Sao Paulo beginning on July 5, 1924. Government troops and rebel troops clashed near Tres Lagoas on August 18, 1924, resulting in the deaths of 110 rebel soldiers and 41 government soldiers. President Bernardes declared martial law, and some 12,000 government troops commanded by General Candido Rondon launched a military offensive (Belarmino-Catanduvas Campaign) against Colonel Lopes’ rebel troops on November 23, 1924. Captain Luis Carlos Prestes led another 2,000 rebels against the government in southern Brazil beginning on October 24, 1924. Government troops and Luis Carlos Prestes’ rebel troops clashed near Palmeiras on January 3, 1925, resulting in the deaths of 40 rebel soldiers. Government troops defeated Colonel Lopes’s rebels near Catanduvas on March 25, 1925, resulting in the deaths of several hundred rebels and 179 government soldiers. Some 1,600 rebel troops led by Miguel Costa, Captain Prestes, and Juarez Tavaro retreated to the interior of the country in April 1925. Government troops and rebel troops clashed near Goias in June 1925, resulting in the deaths of 30 rebels. Washington Luis Pereira de Sousa of the Republican Party of Sao Paulo (Partido Republicano Paulista - PRP) was elected president without opposition on March 1, 1926, and he was inaugurated as president on November 15, 1926. Captain Prestes and 620 rebel troops entered Bolivia on February 4, 1927. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(234-1209) Post-Conflict Phase (February 5, 1927-October 2, 1930): The government banned worker strikes on August 13, 1927. Julio Prestes was elected president on March 1, 1930. Eleven individuals were killed in election-related violence. Alianca Liberal (AL) candidate, Getulio Dornelles Vargas of the state of Rio Granda do Sul, claimed election fraud on May 31, 1930. Joao Pessoa, Getulio Vargas’ vice-presidential running mate, was assassinated by Joao Duarte Dantas in Recife on July 25, 1930. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between February 1927 and October 1930.

(234-1210) Conflict Phase (October 3, 1930-November 3, 1930): Getulio Vargas led a rebellion against the government in southern Brazil (states of Minas Geraes, Parahyba, and Rio Grande do Sul) beginning on October 3, 1930. Rebel troops captured Porto Alegre on October 4, 1930, resulting in the deaths of 20 individuals. Governmen troops and rebel troops clashed in Belo Horizonte on October 4-8, 1930, resulting in the deaths of 16 government soldiers. Government troops and rebel troops clashed in Paraiba on October 4, 1930, resulting in the deaths of eight individuals. Government troops and rebel troops clashed in Recife on October 4-5, 1930, resulting in the deaths of 35 individuals. President Luis Pereira de Sousa declared a state-of-siege on October 6, 1930. The US imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the rebels on October 22, 1930. The government of President Luis Pereira de Sousa was overthrown on October 24, 1930, and a three-member military junta headed by Tasso Fragoso took control of the government on October 25, 1930. The military junta appointed Getulio Vargas as provisional president on October 30, 1930, and Getulio Vargas was sworn in as provisional president on November 3, 1930. Some 100 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(234-1211) Post-Conflict Phase (November 4, 1930-July 20, 1934): President Vargas suspended the constitution and dissolved the Constituent Assembly on November 11, 1930. The US lifted military sanctions against the military junta on March 2, 1931. General Bertholdo Klinger led a rebellion against the government in the state of Sao Paulo on July 9, 1932, but the rebellion was suppressed by government troops on October 3, 1932. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the rebellion. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on May 3, 1933. The Constituent Assembly convened on October 15, 1933, and the constitution of the Second Republic of Brazil went into effect on July 16, 1934 . The constitution limited the president to one four-year term, and established a 250-member Chamber of Deputies elected by popular vote. Getulio Vargas was elected president by the Chamber of Deputies on July 17, 1934, and he was inaugurated as president on July 20, 1934. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in political violence between November 1930 and July 1934.

(234-1213) Crisis Phase (November 23, 1935-September 18, 1946): The National Liberty Alliance (Allianca Nacional Liberatadora - ANL) headed by Luis Carlos Prestes led 3,200 communist rebels against the government of President Vargas in Natal, Recife, and Rio de Janeiro beginning on November 23, 1935. President Vargas declared a one-month state-of-siege on November 25, 1935, and government troops violently suppressed the rebellion on November 28, 1935. Several hundred individuals were killed during the rebellion, including 24 individuals killed in Rio de Janeiro. Congress extended the state-of-siege for ninety days on December 20, 1935. President Vargas declared a state-of-siege to combat the "communist threat" in October 1937. President Vargas dissolved the Congress and proclaimed a new constitution on November 10, 1937, which which allowed him to be re-elected to a six-year term. President Vargas banned political parties on December 2, 1937. The government suppressed a right-wing rebellion led by Plinio Salgado in Rio de Janeiro on May 10, 1938. President Vargas was forced by the military to resigned on October 17, 1945, and Jose Linhares was sworn in as provisional president on October 18, 1945. Enrico Gaspar Dutra, leader of the Social Democratic Party (Partido Social Democratico - PSD), was elected president with 55 percent of the vote on December 2, 1945, and he was inaugurated as president on January 31, 1946. The Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution on September 17, 1946, and the constitution went into effect on September 18, 1946. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(234-1214) Post-Crisis Phase (September 19, 1946-November 10, 1955): Parliamentary elections were held on January 19, 1947. The government banned the Communist Party of Brazil (Partido Communista de Brasil - PCB) on May 7, 1947. Thirty-four individuals were killed in a bombing at the Deodoro arsenal near Rio de Janeiro on April 15, 1948, and government police arrested some 1,000 communists on April 16-24, 1948. Getulio Vargas and Joao Cafe Filho of the Brazilian Labor Party (Partido Trabalhista Brasileiro - PTB) were elected president and vice-president on October 3, 1950, and they were inaugurated as president and vice-president on January 31, 1951. The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government on March 15, 1952. Joao Belchoir Marques Goulart resigned as minister of labor on February 20, 1954. President Getulio Vargas committed suicide on August 24, 1954 (after military leaders force him to agree to relinquish control of the government to the vice-president on August 23, 1954), and Vice-President Cafe Filho was sworn in as president on August 24, 1954. Congressional elections were held on October 3, 1954, and the PSD won 113 out of 312 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Juscelino Kubitschek of the PSD and Joao Goulart of the PTB were elected president and vice-president with 34 percent of the vote on October 3, 1955. President Cafe Filho suffered a heart attack on November 3, 1955, and Carlos Coimbra da Luz was sworn in as interim president on November 8, 1955.

(234-1215) Crisis Phase (November 11, 1955-February 1, 1956): General Henrique Teixeira Lott overthrew the government of President da Luz on November 11, 1955, and former Vice-President Nereu Ramos was sworn in as interim president on November 12, 1955. President Ramos appointed General Teixeira Lott as minister of war on November 12, 1955. Congress approved a state-of-siege on November 24, 1955. Juscelino Kubitschek and Joao Goulart were inaugurated as president and vice-president on January 31, 1956. The government lifted the state-of-siege on February 1, 1956.

(234-1216) Post-Crisis Phase (February 2, 1956-March 30, 1964): Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Major Haroldo Coimbra Velosa and Captain Jose Chavez Lameirao in Jacare-Acanga on February 11-29, 1956, resulting in the death of one individual. Congressional elections were held on October 3, 1958, and the PSD won 113 out of 320 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Lt. Colonel Haroldo Veloso, Joao Paulo Moreira Burnier, and Colonel Luis Mendes da Silva in Aragarcas on December 3-4, 1959. Janio da Silva Quadros was elected president with 45 percent of the vote on October 3, 1960, and he was inaugurated as president on January 31, 1961. President Quadros resigned on August 25, 1961, and Ranieri Mazzili was named interim president by the Chamber of Deputies. Vice-President Joao Goulart was inaugurated as president on September 7, 1961, and President Goulart appointed Tancredo Neves as prime minister on September 8, 1961. Prime Minister Tancredo Neves resigned on June 26, 1962, and Francisco Brochado da Rocha formed a government as prime minister on July 10, 1962. Prime Minister da Rocha resigned on September 13, 1962, and Hermes Lima formed a government as prime minister on November 30, 1962. Congressional elections were held on October 7, 1962. The parliamentary political system was rejected in a referendum on January 6, 1963.

(234-1217) Crisis Phase (March 31, 1964-January 22, 1966): President Goulart was deposed in a military coup led by General Humberto Castelo Branco on April 1, 1964, and Pascoal Rabieri Mazzilli, president of the Chamber of Deputies, was sworn in as interim president on April 2, 1964. President Lyndon Johnson of the US expressed support for the interim government on April 2, 1964. General Castelo Branco was elected as provisional president by the Congress on April 11, 1964, and he was inaugurated as provisional president on April 15, 1964. General Branco abolished political parties and established the National Renovation Alliance (Alianca Renovadora Nacional - ARENA) and Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (Partido do Movimento Democratico Brasileiro - PMDB) on October 27, 1965. The Congress approved a new constitution on January 22, 1966.

(234-1218) Post-Crisis Phase (January 23, 1966-March 31, 1968): General Artur Costa e Silva was elected president by the Congress on October 3, 1966, and he was inaugurated as president on March 15, 1967. Congressional elections were held on November 15, 1966, and the ARENA won 277 out of 409 seats in the House of Representatives. The MDP won 150 seats in the House of Representatives.

(234-1219) Crisis Phase (April 1, 1968-April 22, 1985): The Revolutionary Brazilian Communist Party (Partido Communista Brasileiro Revolucionario - PCBR) was established in opposition to the government in April 1968. President Costa e Silva took control of the government on December 13, 1968. The Roman Catholic bishops in Brazil criticized the military government in February 1969. On October 7, 1969, General Emillo Garrastazu Medici was chosen as president by the High Command of the Armed Forces (Alto-Comando das Forcas Armada - ACFA) following the incapacitation of President Costa e Silva on August 31, 1969. A new constitution was promulgated on October 20, 1969. Carlos Marighela, leader of the National Liberation Action (Acao Libertadora Nacional - ALN), was killed on November 4, 1969. A strict censorship law went into effect on December 6, 1969. On July 22, 1970, the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) condemned the government for holding some 12,000 political prisoners. Congressional elections were held on November 15, 1970, and the ARENA won 220 out of 310 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PMDB won 90 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Municipal elections were held on November 15, 1972, and the ARENA won some 75 percent of the vote. Some 30 individuals were killed in election-related violence. Government police killed six members of the Vanguarda Popular Revoluciondria (VPA) near Recife on January 8, 1973. The Vatican City appealed to the Brazilian military to "respect the rights of men" and to "guarantee economic justice in the country" on August 28, 1973. General Ernesto Geisel of the ARENA was elected president by the electoral college (503 members of the parliament and state legislative assemblies) on January 15, 1974, and he was inaugurated as president on March 15, 1974. Parliamentary elections were held on November 15, 1974, and the ARENA won 198 out of 364 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PMDB won 165 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The National Conference of Brazilian Bishops (NCBB) issued a document on November 17, 1974, which accused the military government of torturing opponents and persecuting the Roman Catholic Church. General Joao Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo was elected president on October 15, 1978, and he was inaugurated as president on March 15, 1979. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in right-wing political violence in 1980. Some 200,000 persons demonstrated for democracy in Sao Paulo on January 25, 1984. Tancredo Neves was chosen as president on January 15, 1985, but he died six weeks later. Vice President Jose Sarney became acting president on March 15, 1985, and he was sworn in as president on April 22, 1985. Some 1,500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(234-1220) Post-Crisis Phase (April 23, 1985-present): Parliamentary and provincial elections were held on November 15, 1986, and the PMDB won 259 out of 487 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Liberal Front Party (Partido da Frente Liberal - PFL) won 115 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Constituent Assembly adopted a new constitution on September 2, 1988. The constitution, which provided for the popular election of presidents, went into effect on October 5, 1988. Fernando Collor de Mello of the National Reconstruction Party (NRP) was elected president on December 17, 1989, and he was inaugurated as president on March 15, 1990. President Collor de Mello was impeached by the Chamber of Deputies in September 1992, and he resigned on December 29, 1992. Vice President Itamar Franco was sworn in as president. Fernando Henrique Cardoso was elected president with 54 percent of the vote on October 3, 1994, and he was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1995. Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva of the Workers’ Party (PT) was elected president with 61 percent of the vote on October 27, 2002, and he was inaugurated president on January 1, 2003.  Parliamentary elections were held on October 1, 2006, and the PMDB won 89 out of 513 sears in the Chamber of Deputies.  The PT won 83 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  President Lula da Silva was re-elected in the second round of presidential elections with 61 percent of the vote on October 29, 2006.

[Sources: Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 469-508; Bello 1966; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), October 3, 1998, October 9, 2002, October 28, 2002; Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), October 28, 2002; Clodfelter, 1992, 697-699, 704; Degenhardt, 1988, 27; Doyle, 1934, 716-718; Dulles 1967; Dulles 1970; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1342; Facts on File, April 11-17, 1948, October 6-12, 1955, November 10-16, 1955, February 15-21, 1956, February 29-March 6, 1956, August 24-30, 1961, August 31-September 6, 1961, September 7-13, 1961, March 26-April 1, 1964, April 2-8, 1964, April 9-15, 1964, November 17-23, 1966, July 30-August 5, 1970, November 26-December 2, 1970, December 3-9, 1972, December 14, 1974, October 20, 1978, March 23, 1979; Hispanic American Report (HAR), October 1950, January 1951, February 1954, August 1954, September 1954, October 1954, September 1955, October 1955, November 1955, December 1955, January 1956; Jessup, 1998, 89-91; Keesing's Record of World Events, January 1-5, 1946, February 2-9, 1946, March 22-29, 1947, May 8-15, 1848, December 30, 1950-January 6, 1951, February 3-10, 1951, December 6-13, 1958, May 2-9, 1964, March 25-April 1, 1967, January 30-February 6, 1971, March 6-13, 1971, April 30-May 6, 1973, February 4-10, 1974, January 20-26, 1975, April 6, 1979, January 1987, November 1988, December 1989; Langer, 1972, 1066, 1259-1260; Levine 1970; Munro, 1961, 323-346; New York Times (NYT), October 1, 1006; Radu and Tismaneanu, 1990, 115-130; Robertson, 1943, 179-211; Scheina, 2003, 127-132; Skidmore, 1967; Skidmore, 1988; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1930, 555, 1931, 511, 1932, 589, 1937 (vol.1), 610; Washington Post (WP), October 30, 2006; Young, 1964, 180-196; Young, 1967.]

(235-1222) Conflict Phase (October 18, 1899-November 21, 1902): Liberals led by General Rafael Uribe, General Benjamin Herera, and General Justo Duran rebelled against the government beginning on October 18, 1899. The rebels received military assistance (weapons and ammunition) from Venezuela. General Jorge Moya Vasquez forced President Sanclemente to resign on July 31, 1900, and Vice-President Jose Marroquin of the historicos faction of the CP (Historical Conservatives) became president on August 1, 1900. US troops intervened on several occasions to protect its interests in the country from November 20, 1901 to November 18, 1902. The US mediated the signing of a peace treaty aboard the USS Wisconsin on November 21, 1902. Some 150,000 individuals, including 75,000 civilians, were killed during the War of the Thousand Days.

(235-1223) Post-Conflict Phase (November 22, 1902-July 31, 1910): Congressional elections were held on March 8, 1903. Panama seceded from Colombia on November 3, 1903. General Rafael Reyes was elected president in 1904, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1904. President Reyes dissolved Congress and established a National Assembly in 1905. On July 13, 1909, General Reyes went into exile after several days of demonstrations. The Constituent Assembly elected General Ramon Gonzalez Valencia as provisional president in August 1909. Elections were held in April 1910. The Constituent Assembly elected Carlos Restrepo of the CP as president in July 1910.

(235-1224) Post-Crisis Phase (August 1, 1910-November 30, 1928): Congressional elections were held in May 1911, and municipal elections were held in October 1911. Jose V. Concha of the CP was elected president on February 10, 1914. Marco Fidel Suarez of the CP was elected president on February 10, 1918. President Suarez resigned on November 9, 1921, and General Jorge Holguin was sworn in as president on November 10, 1921. General Pedro Nel Ospina of the CP was elected president in March 1922. Miguel Abadia Mendez of the CP was elected president on February 14, 1926.

(235-1225) Crisis Phase (December 4, 1928-August 31, 1938): President Mendez declared a state-of-siege on December 4, 1928. Government troops fired on strikers in Cienaga on December 6, 1928, resulting in the deaths of some 1,000 individuals. Some 1,400 individuals were killed in political violence in July 1929. Enrique Olaya Herrera of the Liberal Party (LP) was elected president with 45 percent of the vote on February 9, 1930. Congressional elections were held on May 14, 1933, and the LP won a majority of the votes. The CP claimed election fraud. Municipal elections were held in October 1933, and the LP won a majority of the votes. The CP claimed election fraud. Alfonzo Lopez Pumarejo of the LP was elected president without opposition on February 11, 1934. The CP boycotted the presidential election. Eduardo Santos of the LP was elected president on May 1, 1938, and he was inaugurated as president in August 1938,

(235-1226) Post-Crisis Phase (September 1, 1938-April 8, 1948): Alfonso Lopez Pumarejo of the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal - PL) was elected president on May 2, 1942, and he was inaugurated as president in August 1942. The government submitted a revised concordat with the Vatican to the Congress for ratification, but Senator Laureano Gomez Castro of the Conservative Party (PC) opposed the ratification. The government suppressed several Conservative rebellions in July 1944. President Lopez resigned on July 31, 1945, and Alberto Lleras Camargo was appointed as provisional president by the Legislative Assembly on August 1, 1945. Mariano Ospina Perez of the PC was elected president with 42 percent of the vote on May 4, 1946, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1946. Congressional elections were held on March 16, 1947, and the PL won 73 out of 131 seats in the House of Representatives.

(235-1227) Crisis Phase (April 9, 1948-November 30, 1949): Jorge Eliecer Gaitan, leader of the PL, was assassinated in Bogota on April 9, 1948. Some 1,500 individuals were killed in civil and political violence in Bogota and other cities on April 9-12, 1948. The PL withdrew from the cabinet of President Ospina on May 22, 1949. Congressional elections were held on June 5, 1949, and the PL won a majority of the seats in the House of Representatives. Some ten individuals were killed in election-related violence. Dario Echandia, presidential candidate of the PL, withdrew from the presidential race on November 7, 1949. President Ospina Perez declared a state-of-siege on November 9, 1949. Laureano Gomez Castro of the PC was elected president without opposition on November 27, 1949. Some 2,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(235-1228) Conflict Phase (December 1, 1949-December 1, 1957): Supporters of the PL rebelled against the Conservative government beginning in December 1949. Laureano Gomez Castro was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1950. Congressional elections were held on September 16, 1951, and the PC won 71 out of 122 seats in the House of Representatives and 40 out of 62 seats in the Senate. The PL boycotted the congressional elections. Thirteen individuals were killed in political violence in Huila province on September 19, 1951. Some 50,000 individuals were internally displaced as a result of the political violence. The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government on April 17, 1952. Liberals attacked the Palanquero military air base near Puerto Salgar on January 1, 1953, resulting in the deaths of 60 Liberals and seven government soldiers. Congressional elections were held on March 15, 1953, and the PC won 76 out of 132 seats in the House of Representatives. President Gomez Castro was deposed in a military rebellion on June 13, 1953, and Lt. General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla took control of the government on June 14, 1953. The PL resumed political party activity on June 17, 1953. Twelve students were killed by government police in June 1954. General Rojas Pinilla was elected president by the National Constitutional Assembly on August 3, 1954, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1954. Eleven civilians were killed by Liberals in the Tolima department on November 6, 1954. Government troops and Liberals clashed near Genova on November 10, 1954, resulting in the deaths of 30 individuals. Government troops and Liberals clashed in the Tolima department on March 17-19, 1955, resulting in the deaths of 28 individuals. Seven individuals were killed in political violence in the Valle department on March 19-22, 1955. Government police and demonstrators clashed in Bogota on February 5, 1956, resulting in the deaths of nine individuals. Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Bogota and Cali on May 2-7, 1957, resulting in the deaths of 100 individuals. President Rojas Pinilla was re-elected by the House of Representatives on May 8, 1957. President Rojas Pinilla was overthrown in a military rebellion on May 10, 1957, and a five-member military junta headed by General Gabriel Paris took control of the government on May 11, 1957. On July 26, 1957, the military junta dissolved the House of Representatives following several days of unrest. The PL and PC signed the Pact of Sitges in July 1957, which provided for a PL-PC coalition government. The Pact of Sitges was approved in a referendum held on December 1, 1957. Some 200,000 individuals were killed, and some 200,000 individuals were displaced during the conflict.

(235-1229) Post-Conflict Phase (December 2, 1957-August 27, 1958): Congressional elections were held on March 16, 1958. The PL and PC agreed to split the 148 seats in the House of Representatives and 80 seats in the Senate. Alberto Lleras Camargo of a PL-PC coalition was elected president with 80 percent of the vote on May 4, 1958, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1958. Thirty-one individuals were killed in election-related violence in several provinces on May 4, 1958. Dario Echandia of the PL was elected vice-president by the Congress on August 20, 1958. The government lifted the state-of-siege on August 27, 1958. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between December 1957 and August 1958.

(235-1230) Post-Crisis Phase (August 28, 1958-July 3, 1964): President Lleras Camargo formed a cabinet consisting of six members of the PL and six members of the PC on March 24, 1959. On October 11, 1961, President Lleras Camargo declared a state-of-siege after a military rebellion near Bogota, resulting in the death of one individual. Forty-seven individuals were killed in political violence in Valle on January 21, 1962. Congressional elections were held on March 18, 1962, and the PL-PC coalition won 68 out of 98 seats in the Senate and 109 out of 184 seats in the House of Representatives. Guillermo Leon Valencia of the National Front (PL-PC coalition) was elected president on May 6, 1962, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1962. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in political violence between August 1958 and August 1962. Guillermo Leon Valencia of the National Front (PL-PC coalition) was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1962.

(235-1231) Crisis Phase (July 4, 1964-January 6, 1965): The National Liberation Army (Ejercito de Liberacion Nacional - ELN) was established by Fabio Vasquez Castano and Ricardo Lara Parada on July 4, 1964.

(235-1232) Conflict Phase (January 7, 1965-May 28, 1984): The ELN began a rebellion against the government in northeastern Colombia on January 7, 1965. President Leon Valencia declared a state-of-emergency after several weeks of student demonstrations and violence in May 1965. Government troops and ELN rebels clashed in Santander department on February 15, 1966, resulting in the deaths of five rebels and four government soldiers. The Colombian Revolutionary Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia - FARC), the armed wing of the Communist Party of Colombia (Partido Communista de Colombia - PCC), was established in opposition to the government in April 1966. Carlos Lleras Restrepo was elected president in May 1966, and he was inaugurated on August 7, 1966. The People’s Liberation Army (Ejercito Popular de Liberacion - EPL) was established by the Communist Party of Colombia-Marxist-Leninist (Partido Communista de Colombia-Marxist-Leninist - PCC-ML) in opposition to the government in December 1967. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) established a mission to provide humanitarian assistance to individuals displaced during the conflict beginning in 1969. Misael Pastrana Borrero of the Conservative Party (PC) was elected president on April 19, 1970, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1970. President Lleras Restrepo declared a nationwide state-of-siege on July 19, 1970. Provincial and municipal elections were held on April 16, 1972. Five individuals were killed in election-related violence. The government lifted the state-of-siege on December 29, 1973. The April 19 Movement (M-19) was established in opposition to the government in January 1974. Two individuals were killed in political violence in Bogota on April 19, 1974, and five individuals were killed in political violence in the village of Yacopi on April 19, 1974. Alfonzo Lopez Michelsen of the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal - PL) was elected president with 56 percent of the vote on April 21, 1974, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1974. Parliamentary elections were held on April 21, 1974, and the PL won 113 out of 199 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PC won 66 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. FARC rebels attacked Puerto Rico on April 10, 1975, resulting in the deaths of two government policemen. Three individuals were killed in political violence in La Dorada on June 13, 1975. FARC rebels attacked Mutata on June 20, 1975, resulting in the deaths of two government officials and one government policeman. Government troops and ELN rebels clashed near Morales on June 25, 1975, resulting in the deaths of three government soldiers and three rebels. President Lopez Michelsen declared a state-of-siege on June 26, 1975. Municipal elections were held on April 18, 1976. The government lifted the state-of-siege in June 1976. Congressional elections were held on February 26, 1978, and the PL won 109 out of 199 seats in the House of Representatives. Julio Cesar Turbay Ayala of the PL was elected president on June 4, 1978, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1978. Amnesty International (AI) condemned the government for human rights abuses on April 1, 1980. The Organization of American States (OAS)/Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) investigated human rights conditions in Colombia beginning on April 21, 1980. FARC rejected an amnesty offer by President Turbay Ayala on June 17, 1980. The OAS/IACHR issued a report on human rights conditions in Colombia on June 30, 1981. Amnesty International (AI) condemned the government for human rights abuses on September 22, 1980. Parliamentary elections were held in March 1982, and the PL won a majority of the seats in the Chamber of Representatives. Belisario Betancur Cuartas of the PC was elected president with 47 percent of the vote on May 30, 1982, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1982. President Turbay Ayala lifted the state-of-emergency on June 20, 1982. FARC rebels killed 162 civilians, 13 government soldiers, and 10 government police in 1982. Jaime Bateman Cayon, leader of the M-19 rebels, died in an airplane crash on April 28, 1983. M-19 rebels attacked the Florencia prison in Caqueta on March 14, 1984, resulting in the deaths of 26 rebels, four civilians, and one prison guard. FARC and M-19 rebels attacked Corinto (Cauca) on April 4, 1984, resulting in the deaths of 30 rebels, two government soldiers, and one policeman. The government declared a state-of-siege on May 1, 1984.  The government and FARC signed the Uribe Agreements, which provided for a cessation of military hostilities beginning on May 28, 1984. Some 58,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(235-1233) Post-Conflict Phase (May 29, 1984-December 31, 1986):  EPL rebels killed five individuals in Bogota on July 24, 1984. FARC and M-19 rebels attacked Yumbo on August 11, 1984, resulting in the deaths of 12 rebels, three government policemen, and two civilians. President Betancur Cuartas and M-19 rebels agreed to a one-year ceasefire on August 24, 1984. President Betancur Cuartas and the EPL leadership agreed to a ceasefire, which went into effect on September 1, 1984. FARC established a political party, the Patriotic Union (Union Patriotica - UP), on May 28, 1985. M-19 rebels resumed military hostilities in Genova on June 28, 1985, resulting in the deaths of 19 individuals. M-19 rebels seized the Supreme Court building and took 400 hostages on November 6, 1985. Ricardo Lara Parada, leader of the ELN, was killed by government troops on November 16, 1985. Government troops and police recaptured the building on November 7, 1985, but some 115 individuals were killed in the incident. The government and FARC renewed its ceasefire agreement on March 2, 1986. Parliamentary elections were held on March 9, 1986, and the PL won 100 out of 199 seats in the Chamber of Representatives. Virgilo Barco Vargas of the PL was elected president with 58 percent of the vote on May 25, 1986. On July 18, 1986, Amnesty International (AI) reported that 600 individuals were killed by government forces in the first six months of 1986. Virgilo Barco Vargas was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1986. The UP withdrew from the parliament in November 1986 following the assassinations of 18 members of the party the previous five months. On February 16, 1987, Francisco Caraballo was named as leader of the EPL following the death of the previous leader, Jairo de Jesus Calvo.

(235-1234) Conflict Phase (January 1, 1987-present): FARC rebels resumed military hostilities against the government in 1987. Jaime Pardo Leal, leader of the UP, was assassinated on October 11, 1987. Attorney-General Carlos Mauro Hoyos was assassinated in Medellin on January 25, 1988, and he was succeeded by Alfredo Gutierrez Marquez. Municipal elections were held in March 1988. The US provided military assistance to the government beginning in 1988. FARC rebels declared a unilateral ceasefire on March 1, 1989. The government and M-19 rebel group signed a peace agreement on March 9, 1990. Parliamentary elections were held on March 11, 1990, and the PL won a majority of seats in the Chamber of Representatives. Cesar Gaviria Trujillo of the PL was elected president with 48 percent of the vote on May 27, 1990. The government and EPL signed a ceasefire agreement on July 27, 1990. FARC and ELN rebels attacked military bases in northern Colombia on November 10, 1990, resulting in the deaths of some 25 individuals. The OAS/IACHR sent a three-member fact-finding mission to investigate human rights conditions in Colombia on December 3-7, 1990. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on December 9, 1990. Government troops captured the FARC headquarters in Casa Verde on December 9, 1990, resulting in the deaths of some 60 rebels and 20 government soldiers. The ELN and FARC agreed to peace talks in February 1991. The EPL formally agreed to end its rebellion against the government on March 1, 1991. FARC rebels killed five government policemen in El Retorno on March 7, 1991. President Gaviria Trujillo lifted the state-of-siege on July 7, 1991, and a new constitution was promulgated on July 6, 1991. Parliamentary elections were held on October 27, 1991, and the PL won 86 out of 161 seats in the Chamber of Representatives. The Alianza Democratica M-19 (M-19 Democratic Alliance) won 15 seats in the Chamber of Representatives. The OAS/IACHR sent a three-member fact-finding mission and five staff personnel to investigate human rights conditions in Colombia on May 4-8, 1992.  The government declared a state of internal disturbance on July 10-16, 1992.  FARC and ELN rebels resumed military hostilities on November 5, 1992.  The government declared a state of internal disturbance from November 8, 1992 to February 6, 1993.  FARC rebels killed 26 government policemen in southern Colombia on November 7, 1992, and President Gaviria Trujillo declared a 90-day nationwide state-of-emergency on November 8, 1992. The M-19 Democratic Alliance withdrew from the government of President Gaviria Trujillo on November 24, 1992. Parliamentary elections were held on March 13, 1994, and the PL won 89 out of 163 seats in the Chamber of Representatives. The M-19 Democratic Alliance won two seats in the Chamber of Representatives.  The government declared a state of internal disturbance from May 1 to July 10, 1994.  Ernesto Samper Pizano of the PL was elected president with 50 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections on June 19, 1994. The OAS sent six observers to monitor the presidential election from June 14 to June 22, 1994. Ernesto Samper Pizano was inaugurated as president on August 7, 1994. President Samper Pizano declared a state of internal disturbance on August 16, 1995, but the Constitutional Court ruled the declaration as invalid on October 18, 1995.  The government declared a state of internal disturbance from November 2, 1995 to April 30, 1996.  Municipal elections were held on October 26, 1997. The OAS Council sent 36 observers to monitor the municipal elections from October 18 to October 28, 1997. Parliamentary elections were held on March 8, 1998, and the PL won a majority of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  Andres Pastrana of the Social Conservative Party (PCS) was elected president with 50 percent of the vote on June 21, 1998. ELN rebels attacked an oil pipeline near Machuca on October 18, 1998, resulting in the deaths of some 50 civilians. Amnesty International (AI) condemned ELN for the killings on October 22, 1998. Some 300,000 individuals were displaced in 1998. Some 30,000 Colombian refugees were in Ecuador in December 1998. On June 20, 1999, the government and FARC agreed to resume peace negotiations. FARC rebels conducted a military offensive beginning on July 8, 1999, and some 40 government troops and 38 rebels were killed near Bogota on July 8, 1999. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed in Hato Corozal and Doncello on July 9-10, 1999, resulting in the deaths of 57 rebels. FARC rebels attacked a police station in Narino in the Antioquia province on July 31-August 3, 1999, resulting in the deaths of nine police officers and eight civilians. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appealed for peaceful negotiations on August 2, 1999. Members of the right-wing paramilitary United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) killed 36 civilians in northeastern Colombia on August 21-22, 1999. On August 22, 1999, the UN Security Council condemned the Colombian government for not taking "the measures and actions necessary to guarantee the life and safety" of the inhabitants of northeastern Colombia. Government troops killed 10 AUC members on August 29, 1999. The ICRC provided emergency humanitarian assistance to some 170,000 internally displaced individuals in 1999. Government troops killed 24 FARC rebels on September 1, 1999. FARC rebels killed eight policemen and a local government official in San Luis on December 11, 1999. FARC rebels attacked a naval base in Jurado on December 12, 1999, resulting in the deaths of 27 military personnel and 42 rebels. FARC rebels killed three policemen in Cubara on December 13, 1999. Military aircraft attacked FARC rebels near El Hobo in Huila province on December 15, 1999, resulting in the deaths of 66 rebels. Government troops and ELN rebels clashed on December 26-28, 1999, resulting in the deaths of some 30 rebels and one government soldier. The ICRC suspended its humanitarian activities on January 4, 2000 (ICRC had some 280 personnel in Colombia). Hugo Carvajal, leader of the EPL, was killed by government troops on January 13, 2000. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed near Guayabetal on January 15, 2000, resulting in the deaths of eleven rebels and three government troops. The ICRC resumed humanitarian assistance on January 20, 2000. FARC rebels attacked Vigia del Fuerte and Bojaya on March 25-26, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 24 government policemen and six civilians. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed in Boyaca province on April 4, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 17 rebels. The European Union (EU) appealed to EPL and FARC rebels to end acts of violence and condemned the groups for human rights violations. FARC rebels attacked Algeciras on June 26-27, 2000, resulting in the deaths of two government policemen. FARC rebels killed eleven government policemen in Narino province on July 24, 2000, and FARC rebels killed two government soldiers in Magdalena province on July 24, 2000. FARC rebels killed 13 government policemen and four civilians in Arboleda in Caldas province on July 29-30, 2000. Government troops and FARC rebels clashed in Antioquia province on September 14-16, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 19 government soldiers and seven rebels. Amnesty International (AI) condemned the ELN on October 27, 2000. The Vatican appealed for a cessation of military hostilities on January 24, 2001. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appealed for negotiations on February 1, 2001. ELN and FARC rebels killed nine individuals in Antioquia province and Guajira province on October 21, 2001. FARC rebels killed two government policemen and eight government soldiers in Cauca province on December 31, 2001-January 1, 2002. President Pastrana ended negotiations with FARC rebels in February 2002. Parliamentary elections were held on March 10, 2002, and the PL won 54 out of 156 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The PC won 21 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  Alvaro Uribe of the Colombia First (CF) was elected president with 53 percent of the vote on May 26, 2002, and he was inaugurated as president on August 7, 2002. The OAS sent 50 observers from 18 countries headed by Santiago Murray of Argentina to monitor the elections from March 8 to May 27, 2002. President Pastrana ended negotiations with ELN rebels on May 31, 2002. Six individuals were killed in political violence in Cartagena on July 18, 2002. FARC rebels killed two government policemen near the village of San Juan de Rioseco on July 24, 2002. Nineteen individuals were killed in political violence in Bogota on August 7, 2002. Government troops killed 20 right-wing paramilitary soldiers near Segovia on August 9-10, 2002. President Alvaro Uribe declared a 90-day state-of-siege on August 12, 2002. FARC rebels killed three individuals near Campoalegre on October 19, 2002. Government troops and ELN rebels clashed near the village of Cerritos on November 5, 2002, resulting in the deaths of 11 rebels.  Carlos Castaño and Salvatore Mancuso, leaders of the AUC, announced a unilateral ceasefire beginning on December 1, 2002.  FARC rebels killed six policemen and one civilian north of Bogota on January 20, 2003.  FARC rebels ambushed government troops in Bolivar province on June 24, 2003, resulting in the deaths of eleven government soldiers and three rebels.  Government and AUC representatives signed the Santa Fe de Ralito Agreement on July 15, 2003, which provided for the disarmament and demobilization of AUC paramilitary groups.  Government troops killed sixteen FARC rebels in Boyaca province and six right-wing militiamen in Santander province on September 6, 2003.  Government troops clashed with FARC rebels in northeast Colombia on September 7, 2003, resulting in the deaths of seven government soldiers and eight rebels.  Ten individuals were killed in a bombing in Florencia on September 28, 2003.  On February 6, 2004, the OAS Permanent Council established the OAS Mission to Support the Peace Process in Colombia (MAPP) to verify the disarmament and demobilization of AUC paramilitary groups.  MAPP consisted of some 100 personnel headed by Sergio Caramagna from Argentina.  FARC rebels killed 34 peasants in the village of Rio Chiquita on June 15, 2004.  ELN rebels kidnapped Bishop Misael Vacca Ramirez of Yopal on July 24, 2004.  Amnesty International (AI) and Pope John Paul II condemned the kidnapping of Bishop Misael Vacca Ramirez, who was released by ELN rebels on July 27, 2004.  Two government police officers were killed in a bombing in Bogota on August 27, 2004.  Ten individuals were killed by gunmen in the town of Candelaria on October 4, 2004.  FARC rebels killed some 23 government soldiers in Iscuande on February 1-2, 2005.  FARC rebels killed eight government soldiers and one civilian in Putumayo province on February 3, 2005.  FARC rebels killed some 20 government soldiers in northwestern Colombia on February 9, 2005.  FARC rebels killed four government police officers and six government officials in the town of Puerto Rico in Caqueta province on May 25, 2005.  FARC rebels attacked government troops in Putumayo province on June 25, 2005, resulting in the deaths of some 25 government soldiers.  FARC rebels attacked government policemen in the village of Sipi in Choco province on October 2, 2005, resulting in the deaths of five government policemen.  The OAS provided landmine assistance (two supervisors) to the government beginning on November 8, 2005.  Cuba facilitated negotiations between representatives of the government and ELN in Havana on December 17-22, 2005 and April 25-28, 2006.  FARC rebels killed 28 government soldiers near the town of Vista Hermosa in Meta province on December 28, 2005.  FARC rebels killed eight civilians near Puerto Rica in Caqueta province on February 26, 2006.  FARC rebels killed seven civilians in the village of Rivera in Caqueta province on February 27, 2006.  Parliamentary elections were held on March 12, 2006, and the PL 35 out of 162 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The PC won 29 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  FARC and EPL rebels killed 17 government soldiers near the town of Hacari in Norte de Santander province on April 22, 2006.  President Alvaro Uribe was re-elected with 62 percent of the vote on May 28, 2006.  Six government soldier officers were killed in a FARC attack in southwestern Colombia on July 4, 2006.  Fifteen government soldiers were killed in a FARC ambush in northeastern Colombia on August 1, 2006.  Four government policemen and one civilian were killed in a bombing in Cali on August 4, 2006.  Some 45,000 individuals have been killed, and some 1.5 million have been displaced during the conflict.

[Sources: Amnesty International (AI) press release, October 27, 2000; Arnold et al., 1991, 51-55; Associated Press (AP), November 1, 1997, June 20, 1999, August 2, 1999, September 2, 1999, December 14, 1999, December 15, 1999, January 15, 2000, January 20, 2000, March 27, 2000, June 27, 2000, August 10, 2002, October 19, 2002, September 7, 2003; Bailey, 1967, 561-575; Banks and Muller, 1998, 195-200; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 649-665; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 124-125; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), September 28, 2003, December 4, 2003, June 16, 2004, August 27, 2004, October 4, 2004, February 1, 2005, February 2, 2005, February 3, 2005, February 9, 2005, May 25, 2005, June 26, 2005, October 3, 2005, December 17, 2005, December 28, 2005, February 26, 2007, February 27, 2006, April 22, 2006, May 29, 2006, July 4, 2006, August 1, 2006, August 4, 2006; Clodfelter, 1992, 1182-1183; Degenhardt, 1988, 58-63; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1342; Facts on File, April 4-10, 1948, April 11-17, 1948, June 19-25, 1949, November 27-December 3, 1949, September 14-20, 1951, June 12-18, 1953, June 19-25, 1953, August 6-12, 1954, February 8-14, 1956, May 2-8, 1957, May 9-15, 1957, December 12-18, 1957, March 13-19, 1958, May 1-7, 1958, August 28-September 3, 1958, March 17-23, 1966, April 23-29, 1970, August 6-12, 1970, April 16-22, 1972, April 27, 1974, June 28, 1975; Fluharty 1957; Gott, 1971, 223-304; Hispanic American Report (HAR), December 1949, January 1950, September 1950, October 1951, February 1953, April 1953, May 1953, July 1953, February 1956, July 1956, June 1957, July 1957, April 1958, June 1958, September 1958, December 1961, March 1962, My 1962, June 1962, July 1962, August 1962; Hobsbawm, 1963, 248-258; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) report, October 14, 1993; International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) press release, August 19, 1999, January 20, 2000; Jessup, 1998, 131-132; Keesing's Record of World Events, June 7-14, 1947, December 17, 1949, June 3-9, 1974, September 16-22, 1974, September 1-7, 1975, November 19, 1976, June 23, 1978, September 15, 1978, October 27, 1978, September 24, 1982, December 1986, March 1991, November 1992, June 1994; Langer, 1972, 852-854, 1257-1258; Marley, 1998, 605-606; Martz 1962; Munro, 1961, 295-311; New York Times (NYT), August 8, 2002; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, March 6, 2002, June 20, 2002, March 16, 2005, November 8, 2005; Radu and Tismaneanu, 1990, 149-179; Reuters, October 23, 1997, October 24, 1997, January 4, 1999, July 8, 1999, July 10, 1999, August 3, 1999, August 22, 1999, August 25, 1999, August 29, 1999, December 12, 1999, December 13, 1999, December 15, 1999, December 28, 1999, January 20, 2000, January 28, 2000, March 27, 2000, April 4, 2000, May 23, 2000, July 25, 2000, July 31, 2000, September 17, 2000, January 24, 2001, February 1, 2001, October 21, 2001, January 1, 2002, May 26, 2002, May 31, 2002, July 24, 2002, August 7, 2002, August 12, 2002, November 5, 2002, January 20, 2003, June 24, 2003, September 6, 2003, June 15, 2004; Robertson, 1943, 335-357; Scheina, 2003, 189-195.]

(236-1236) Conflict Phase (December 19, 1901-July 31, 1903): General Manuel Antonio Matos led a caudillo rebellion against the government beginning on December 19, 1901. Government troops defeated rebels near Ciudad Bolivar on July 19, 1903, resulting in the deaths of some 800 rebels and 250 government troops. Some 12,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(236-1237) Post-Conflict Phase (August 1, 1903-August 27, 1910): The Congress approved a new constitution on April 27, 1904. President Castro was re-elected without opposition in June 1905. Some 30,000 individuals were exiled from the country during the rule of President Castro. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government in May 1908. President Castro departed for Europe for medical treatment on November 24, 1908, and General Juan Vicente Gomez took control of the government as provisional president on December 19, 1908. The US deployed naval ships near La Guaira in support of General Gomez on December 27, 1908. A new constitution was approved in August 1909, which limited the president to one, four-year term. General Vicente Gomez was elected president on August 27, 1910.

(236-1239) Crisis Phase (August 1, 1913-December 18, 1935): Former President Castro led a rebellion against the government beginning in August 1913, and government troops suppressed the rebellion in January 1914. The Congress elected Victoriano Marquez Bustillos as provisional president on April 19, 1914. A new constitution was adopted in June 1914, which provided for congressional election of presidents for seven-year terms. The Congress elected General Vicente Gomez as president on May 3, 1915. President Vicente Gomez was re-elected by the Congress in May 1922, and he was inaugurated as president on June 24, 1922. A new constitution went into effect on June 19, 1922, which prohibited the president from also serving as commander-in-chief of the military. General Juan Gomez, the brother of President Vicente Gomez, was appointed as First Vice-President. General Juan Gomez was murdered in the presidential palace on July 1, 1923. J. R. Gabaldon led a rebellion against the government in the states of Lara, Trujillo, and Portuguesa in 1928, but government troops suppressed the rebellion. President Gomez was re-elected by the Congress on April 19, 1929, but President Gomez declined the re-election. The Congress elected Juan Bautista Perez as president on May 30, 1929, and the Congress selected General Vicente Gomez to serve as commander-in-chief of the military. General Vicente Gomez took control of the government in 1930. The National Democratic Party (Partido Democratico Nacional - PDN) was established by Romulo Betancourt, Gonzalo Barrios, Raul Leoni, and Luis Beltran Prieto Figueroa on March 22, 1931. President Gomez suppressed a military rebellion led by General Arevalo Cedeno in 1931. The Communist Party of Venezuela (Partido Communista de Venezolano - PCV) was established by Rodolfo Quintero, Juan Bautista Tamayo, and Francisco Jose Delgado was established in 1931. President Gomez died on December 17, 1935, and General Eleazar Lopez Contreras was appointed as provisional president on December 18, 1935.

(236-1240) Post-Crisis Phase (December 19, 1935-October 17, 1945): General Lopez Contreras was elected president by the Congress on April 25, 1936. A new constitution that limited the president’s term in office to a single five-year term went into effect on July 20, 1936. General Isaias Medina Angarita was elected president by the Congress on April 28, 1941, and he was inaugurated as president on May 5, 1941. The National Democratic Party (Partido Democratico Nacional - PDN) was renamed the Democratic Action (Acion Democratica - AD) on September 13, 1941.

(236-1241) Crisis Phase (October 18, 1945-February 15, 1948): General Medina Angarita was overthrown in a rebellion led by the AD and Patriotic Military Union (Union Patriotica Militar - UPM) on October 18-21, 1945, resulting in the deaths of some 200 individuals. A seven-member revolutionary junta took control of the government on October 19, 1945. Romulo Betancourt of the AD was appointed as provisional president on October 21, 1945. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on October 30, 1945. The Democratic Republican Union (Union Republicana Democratica - URD) was established by Jovito Villalba, Dionisio Lopez Orihuela, Enrique Betancourt Galindez, and Luis Miquelena in opposition to the government on March 12, 1946. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on October 27, 1946, and the AD won 137 seats. The Constituent Assembly convened in Caracas on December 7, 1946, and approved a new constitution on July 5, 1947. Parliamentary elections were held on December 14, 1947, and the AD won 83 out of 110 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Romulo Gallegos Freire of the AD was elected president on December 14, 1947, and he was inaugurated as president on February 15, 1948. Some 200 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(236-1243) Crisis Phase (November 24, 1948-February 14, 1959): President Gallegos Freire was overthrown in a military coup on November 24, 1948. President Romulo Gallegos Freire was overthrown in a military coup on November 24, 1948, and a three-member military junta headed by Colonel Carlos Delgado Chalbaud took control of the government on November 25, 1948. The military junta dissolved the Congress on December 5, 1948. Brazil provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on January 17, 1949. Panama and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on January 21, 1949. The military junta banned the Communist Party of Venezuela (Partido Communista Venezolano - PCV) headed by Juan Bautista Fuenmayor on May 16, 1950. Colonel Delgado Chalbaud was assassinated in Caracas on November 13, 1950, and German Suarez Flamerich was appointed as provisional president on November 27, 1950. The government suppressed a rebellion on October 12, 1951, resulting in the deaths of nine individuals. Parliamentary elections were held on May 11-13, 1952. The government suppressed rebellions against the government of President Suarez Flamerich on September 29-October 1, 1952, resulting in the deaths of eight individuals. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on November 30, 1952, and the Frente Electoral Independiente (FEI) won 59 out of 104 seats. The Republican Democratic Union (Union Republicana Democratica - URD) won 29 seats in the Constituent Assembly. Opposition groups claimed election fraud. Ignacio Arcaya, president of the URD, was arrested on December 1, 1952. Lt. Colonel Marcos Perez Jimenez took control of the government on December 2, 1952. Lt. Colonel Perez Jimenez was elected provisional president by the Constituent Assembly on January 9, 1953, and he was inuagurated as provisional president on January 10, 1953. The Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution on April 11, 1953, and the constitution went into effect on April 15, 1953. The Constituent Assembly elected Lt. Colonel Perez Jimenez as president on April 17, 1953, and he was inaugurated as president on April 19, 1953. The Roman Catholic Church denounced the government on May 1, 1957. The Democratic Action (Acion Democratica - AD) and URD established the Patriotic Front (PF) in opposition to the government on June 11, 1957. President Perez Jimenez was approved by 72 percent of the voters in a referendum on December 15, 1957. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by General Hugo Fuentes and Colonel Jesus Maria Castro Leon in Maracay on January 1-2, 1958. Some 300 indviduals were killed by government troops during demonstrations in Caracas on January 14-22, 1958. President Perez Jimenez was overthrown in a military rebellion on January 22, 1958, and a seven-member military junta headed by Rear Admiral Wolfgang Larrazabal took control of the government on January 23, 1958. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on January 28, 1958. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Defense Minister Jesus Maria Castro Leon in Caracas on July 22-23, 1958. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Lt. Colonel Jose Mendoza and Major Regulo Vivas Ramirez in Caracas on September 7-8, 1958, resulting in the deaths of some 20 individuals. Political leaders signed the Pact of Punto Fijo on October 31, 1958, which provided for the sharing of political power among the political parties. Rear-Admiral Larrazabal resigned as head of the military junta on November 14, 1958, and Edgard Sanabria was appointed as head of the military junta on November 15, 1958. Congressional elections were held on December 7, 1958, and the AD won 73 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The URD won 34 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Romulo Betancourt of the AD was elected president with 47 percent of the vote on December 7, 1958, and he was inaugurated as president on February 14, 1959. One individual was killed in election-related violence. Some 550 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(236-1244) Post-Crisis Phase (February 15, 1959-April 8, 1960): Three government policemen and one civilian were killed during demonstrations in Caracas on August 4, 1959.

(236-1245) Crisis Phase (April 9, 1960-February 19, 1963): The Movement of the Revolutionary Left (Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria - MIR) was established in opposition to the government on April 9, 1960. Cuba provided military assistance to MIR. The government suppressed a rebellion in San Cristobal on April 20-21, 1960, resulting in the deaths of two civilians and one government soldier. President Betancourt survived an attempted assassination in Caracas on June 24, 1960, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. President Betancourt accused the government of the Dominican Republic of involvement in the assassination attempt on June 25, 1960. Venezuela referred the matter to the Organization of American States (OAS) Council on July 1, 1960. The OAS Council established a five-member commission of inquiry on July 8, 1960. On August 15, 1960, the OAS commission of inquiry reported that the Dominican Republic was linked to the assassination attempt by Venezuelan exiles. Six individuals were killed during demonstrations in Caracas on October 24-31, 1960. Eight individuals were killed during anti-government demonstrations in Caracas on November 25-29, 1960. A new constitution went into effect on January 23, 1961. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Major Ruben Masso Perdomo and Captain Luis Alberto Vivas Ramirez in Barcelona and La Guaira on June 26, 1961, resulting in the deaths of 17 individuals. On November 11, 1961, Venezuela severed diplomatic relations with Cuba following charges by the Venezuelan government that Cuba had been involved in supporting communist unrest in the country. Government troops and communist rebels clashed near the towns of Humocaro Alto and Humocaro Bajo on April 1, 1962, resulting in the deaths of nine individuals. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Lt. Commander Jesus Teodoro Villegas Molina on May 4-5, 1962, resulting in the deaths of seven individuals. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Lt. Commander Pedro Medina Silva and Captain Manuel Ponte Rodriguez on June 2-4, 1962, resulting in the deaths of some 300 individuals. The government banned the political activities of the PCV and MIR on May 10, 1962. Venezuela accused Cuba of providing military assistance to communist rebels in November 1962. Some 20 individuals were killed during demonstrations in Caracas on February 19-20, 1963. Some 400 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(236-1246) Conflict Phase (February 20, 1963-December 31, 1969): The Armed Forces of National Liberation (Fuerzas Armadas de Liberacion Nacional - FALN) began a rebellion against the government on February 20, 1963. Cuba provided military assistance to the FALN. President Betancourt survived an attempted assassination in Ciudad Bolivar on June 12, 1963. FALN rebels killed five government soldiers on September 30, 1963. FALN rebels killed three government soldiers and three civilians in Caracas on October 4-5, 1963. The government discovered an arms cache on the Paraguana peninsula on November 1, 1963. On November 29, 1963, the government confirmed that the arms had originated in Cuba. Venezuela referred the matter to the OAS on November 30, 1963, and the OAS Council approved a five-member commission of inquiry (Argentina, Columbia, Costa Rica, US, Uruguay) on December 3, 1963. The OAS commission of inquiry, which included ten military observers and technicians, was in Venezuela from December 8-15, 1963. Raul Leoni of the AD was elected president on December 1, 1963, and he was inaugurated as president on March 11, 1964. On February 18, 1964, the OAS commission of inquiry issued a report that substantiated Venezuela’s claims against Cuba. Venezuelan rebels trained in Cuba were landed in Venezuela on July 24, 1966, and twelve Cuban and Venezuelan rebels unsuccessfully attempted to infiltrate into the country on May 8, 1967. Two Cuban soldiers were killed and two were captured during the attempted infiltration, and one government soldier was killed. Venezuela referred the matter to the OAS on May 15, 1967. The OAS Council established a commission of inquiry in June 1967 to investigate Venezuela’s claim that Cuba had helped smuggle commandos and weapons into the country. On May 18, 1967, Cuba admitted that it had trained and provided military assistance to FALN rebels. On July 26, 1967, the OAS commission of inquiry reported that Cuba had trained and supported the Venezuelan rebels (the OAS Council condemned Cuba for its aggression against Venezuela on July 26, 1967). Cuba ended its military assistance to FALN rebels in November 1968. Three individuals were killed in political violence in Trinchera on November 29, 1968, and two individuals were killed in political violence in the village of Tapatapa on December 19, 1968. Parliamentary elections were held on December 1, 1968, and the AD won 68 out of 210 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Social Christian Party (Partido Social Cristiano - PSC) won 50 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Rafael Caldera Rodriguez of the PSC was elected president on December 1, 1968, and he was inaugurated as president on March 11, 1969. President Caldera Rodriguez lifted the ban on the PCV on March 26, 1969. Government police and students clashed in Caracas on May 22-23, 1969. FALN rebels attacked a village in Barinas province on June 9, 1969, and attacked Acurita in Falcon province on June 11, 1969. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(236-1247) Post-Conflict Phase (January 1, 1970-March 11, 1974): The government closed the University of Caracas on April 22, 1971. Parliamentary elections were held on December 9, 1973, and the AD won 102 out of 203 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Carlos Andres Perez of AD was elected president on December 9, 1973, and he was inaugurated as president on March 11, 1974.

(236-1248) Post-Crisis Phase (March 12, 1974-February 26, 1989): Parliamentary elections were held on December 3, 1978, and the PSC won 86 out of 195 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The AD also won 86 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Luis Herrera Campins of the PSC was elected president on December 3, 1978, and he was inaugurated as president on March 12, 1979. Jaime Lusunchi of the AD was elected president on December 4, 1983, and he was inaugurated as president on February 2, 1984. Parliamentary elections were held on December 4, 1988, and the AD won 97 out of 201 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Carlos Andres Perez of the AD was elected president on December 4, 1988, and he was inaugurated as president in February 1989.

(236-1249) Crisis Phase (February 27, 1989-December 15, 1999): Government troops suppressed a rebellion on February 27, 1989, resulting in the deaths of 276 individuals.  The government suspended constitutional protections of individual civil liberties between February 28 and March 22, 1989.  Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Colonel Hugo Chavez of the Bolivian Revolutionary Movement-200 (MBR-200) on February 3-4, 1992, resulting in the deaths of some 40 individuals. Lt. Colonel Chavez Frias was arrested and imprisoned following the military rebellion.  The government suspended constitutional protections of individual civil liberties between February 4 and April 9, 1992.  The Organization of American States (OAS) Council condemned the military rebellion on February 5, 1992.  Government troops suppressed a military rebellion on November 27-29, 1992, resulting in the deaths of 142 civilians and 27 government soldiers.  The government suspended constitutional protections of individual civil liberties between November 27, 1992 and January 16, 1993.  State and local elections were held on December 6, 1992. The OAS sent observers to monitor the municipal elections. President Perez was suspended by the Senate on May 21, 1993, and Ramon Jose Velasquez was elected provisional president by the Congress on June 5, 1993. Rafael Caldera Rodriguez of the National Convergence (NC) coalition was elected president with 30 percent of the vote on December 5, 1993, and he was inaugurated as president on February 2, 1994. The OAS sent 31 observers to monitor the elections from November 24 to to December 13, 1993. President Caldera Rodriguez release Hugo Chavez Frias from prison in March 1994. The OAS sent 30 observers to monitor the presidential elections from November 24 to December 13, 1993. The government suspended constitutional protections of individual civil liberties between June 27, 1994 and July 6, 1995.  Parliamentary elections were held on November 8, 1998, and the Patriotic Front (PF) coalition won 70 out of 189 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  Hugo Chavez of the PF coalition was elected president with 56 percent of the vote on December 6, 1998. The European Union (EU) sent observers to monitor the presidential election. The OAS sent 68 observers from 19 countries headed by Edgardo Reis to monitor the parliamentary elections beginning in October 1998. The Carter Center (CC) sent 40 observers headed by Jimmy Carter of the US and Patricio Aylwin of Chile to monitor the presidential election beginning on December 4, 1998. On December 7, 1998, the OAS mission reported that the elections had been free and fair. The International Republican Institute (IRI) sent 27 observers to monitor the election process beginning on November 8, 1998. The IRI mission issued its election report on February 12, 1999. Parliamentary elections were held on July 25, 1999. The OAS sent 54 observers from 17 countries headed by Christopher Thomas of Trinidad and Tobago to monitor the parliamentary elections on July 20-26, 1999. A new constitution was approved by 71 percent of voters in a referendum on December 15, 1999. The OAS sent 13 observers to monitor the referendum. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(236-1250) Post-Crisis Phase (December 16, 1999-April 10, 2002): Parliamentary elections were held on July 30, 2000, and the Fifth Republic Movement (Movimiento Quinta Republica-MQR) headed by President Chavez won 91 out of 165 seats in the National Assembly.  The Democratic Action (Accion Democratica - AD) won 33 seats in the National Assembly.  President Chavez was re-elected with some 60 percent of the vote on July 30, 2000, and he was inaugurated for a six-year term on August 19, 2000. The OAS sent 35 observers headed by Ruben Perina to monitor the elections beginning on July 17, 2000. The Carter Center (CC) sent 48 observers headed by Jimmy Carter of the US and Rodrigo Carazo of Costa Rica to monitor the parliamentary elections on July 27-31, 2000.

(236-1251) Crisis Phase (April 11, 2002-May 29, 2003): Sixteen individuals were killed in political violence in Caracas on April 11, 2002. President Chavez was overthrown by the military, and Pedro Carmona was appointed as interim president on April 12, 2002. The Rio Group (RG) condemned the overthrow of President Chavez on April 12, 2002. The OAS Permanent Council condemned the overthrow of President Chavez on April 14, 2002. President Chavez was restored to power on April 14, 2002. Some 25 individuals were killed in political violence on April 12-14, 2002. The OAS sent a fact-finding mission to Venezuela on April 15, 2002.  Jimmy Carter of the Carter Center (CC) attempted to mediate negotiations between the government and opposition groups beginning on July 6-9, 2002. The OAS, Carter Center (CC), and UN sent a joint fact-finding mission to the country on September 9-13, 2002. Secretary-General Cesar Gaviria of the OAS mediated negotiations between government and opposition representatives beginning on November 8, 2002. Three individuals were killed in political violence in Caracas on December 6, 2002.  Two individuals were killed in political violence in Caracas on January 4, 2003.  Secretary-General Cesar Gaviria of the OAS mediated the signing of a non-violence pact between the government and opposition groups on February 18, 2003.  Secretary-General Cesar Gaviria of the OAS mediated an agreement to end the violence between the government and opposition groups on May 29, 2003.    Some 50 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(236-1252)  Post-Crisis Phase (May 30, 2003-present):  The OAS and Carter Center (CC) sent observers to monitor the collection of signatures for a presidential recall referendum from November 21 to December 1, 2003.  Two individuals were killed in political violence in Caracas on February 28, 2004.  The OAS and Carter Center (CC) sent observers to monitor an electoral process (recall signature corrections) from May 21 to May 30, 2004.  A referendum to recall President Chavez was held on August 15, 2004, and some 58 percent of the electorate voted not to recall President Chavez.  The Carter Center (CC) sent observers to monitor the referendum from August 13 to August 18, 2004.  Parliamentary elections were held on December 4, 2005, and the MQR won 116 out of 167 seats in the National Assembly.  The For Social Democracy (Por la Democracia Social - PDS) won 18 seats in the National Assembly.  AD and several other opposition political parties boycotted the parliamentary elections.  The OAS sent 45 observers from 22 countries to monitor the parliamentary elections.  The EU sent 11 election experts, 40 long-term observers, and 100 short-term observers headed by Jose Albino Silva Peneda of Portugal to monitor the parliamentary elections beginning on November 7, 2005.  President Chavez of the MQR was re-elected with 63 percent of the vote on December 3, 2006.  The EU sent 154 observers to monitor the presidential election from November 15 to December 5, 2006.  The OAS sent 60 observers to monitor the presidential election.

[Sources: Alexander 1964; Associated Press (AP), April 14, 2002; Banks and Muller, 1998, 1011-1016; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 666-683; Beigbeder, 1994, 230; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 134; Associated Press (AP), December 16, 1999, July 31, 2000, August 19, 2000; Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 506-507, 509-510; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), July 8, 2002, July 10, 2002, December 7, 2002, December 11, 2002, January 4, 2003, January 10, 2003, February 18, 2003, May 29, 2003, February 28, 2004, December 1, 2005, December 4, 2006; Burggraaff 1972; Butterworth, 1976, 371-373; Carter Center (CC) press release, December 1, 1998, May 2, 2000, July 26, 2000, July 28, 2000, July 31, 2000, August 2, 2000; Carter Center (CC) report, August 19, 2004; Clodfelter, 1992, 695, 1184; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1344; European Union (EU) statement, December 5, 2006; Facts on File, December 14-20, 1947, February 15-21, 1948, November 21-27, 1948, January 16-22, 1949, November 10-16, 1950, November 24-30, 1950, October 19-25, 1951, May 30-June 5, 1952, October 3-9, 1952, May 30-June 5, 1952, January 9-15, 1958, January 23-29, 1958, July 24-30, 1958, September 4-10, 1958, December 4-10, 1958, August 27-September 2, 1959, April 28-May 4, 1960, November 24-30, 1960, June 22-28, 1961, May 3-9, 1962, May 31-June 6, 1962, October 3-9, 1963, February 20-26, 1964, December 26-31, 1968, May 8-14, 1969, July 3-9, 1969, December 16-22, 1973, December 15, 1978, March 16, 1979; Gott, 1971, 121; Hellinger 1991; Hispanic American Report (HAR), December 1948, December 1950, December 1952, January 1953, February 1953, May 1953, January 1958, February 1958, October 1958, December 1958, January 1959, March 1959, December 1963, June 1964, July 1964; Jessup, 1998, 786-788; Keesing's Record of World Events, November 10-17, 1945, December 11-18, 1948, June 17-24, 1950, February 15-22, 1958, September 20-27, 1958, February 14-21, 1959, March 7-14, 1959, July 23-30, 1960, May 16-23, 1964, October 3-10, 1964, July 1-8, 1967, January 11-18, 1969, April 26-May 3, 1969, January 21-27, 1974, February 1992, November 1992, June 1993, December 1993, November 1998, December 1998; Kolb 1974; Langer, 1972, 854, 1065, 1258-1259; Moron 1964; Munro, 1961, 312-324; New York Times (NYT), May 14, 1967, May 16, 1967, May 17, 1967, May 18, 1968, May 19, 1967, July 27, 1967, November 29, 1992, April 12, 2002, November 20, 2002, December 4, 2002, December 8, 2002, January 19, 2003, January 21, 2003; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, December 4, 1998, July 20, 1999, July 21, 1999, July 14, 2000, April 14, 2002, September 5, 2002, October 23, 2002, November 18, 2003, May 12, 2004, November 8, 2005, December 6, 2005, October 25, 2006; Radu and Tismaneanu, 1990, 357-368; Reuters, December 15, 1999, April 11, 2002, April 12, 2002, July 6, 2002, July 7, 2002, November 9, 2002, December 3, 2002, January 21, 2003, February 18, 2003; Robertson, 1943, 379-400; Scheina, 2003, 229-236, 255-264; Shore, 47-49; Wainhouse, 1966, 175-179; Washington Post (WP), December 4, 2006; Weisburd, 1997, 186-187.]

(237-1254) Post-Crisis (July 1, 1904-November 18, 1911): President Morales Languasco resigned on December 28, 1905, and Vice-President Ramon Caceres was inaugurated as president on December 29, 1905. Supporters of former President Morales Languasco rebelled against the government in Santiago and Puerto Plata in January 1906. A Constituent Assembly convened in Santiago in November 1907, and approved a new constitution on April 1, 1908. Ramon Caceres was elected president on May 30, 1908, and he was inaugurated as president on July 1, 1908.

(237-1255) Crisis Phase (November 19, 1911-March 29, 1914): President Caceres was fatally wounded during an assassination attempt on November 19, 1911, and Colonel Alfredo Victoria took provisional control of the government on November 20, 1911. Some 30 individuals were executed for their involvement in the assassination. Eladio Victoria was elected president by the Congress on December 6, 1911, and he was inaugurated as president on February 27, 1912. A rebellion broke out against the government on June 5, 1912. US troops were deployed in support of the government in September 1912. President Victoria resigned on November 26, 1912, and Archbishop Adolfo Nouel was elected as provisional president by the Congress on November 30, 1912. President Nouel resigned on March 31, 1913. Jose Bordas Valdes was elected as provisional president by the Congress, and he was inaugurated as president on April 14, 1913. Former President Haracio Vasquez led a rebellion (Revolucion del Ferrocarril) against the government beginning on September 1, 1913. The US mediated a ceasefire agreement between the government and Haracistas. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on December 15, 1913. The US deployed 29 observers headed by Hugh Gibson, J. H. Stabler, and F. A. Sterling to supervise the elections on December 12-16, 1913. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(237-1256) Conflict Phase (March 30, 1914-August 6, 1914): Desiderio Arias led a rebellion against the government in La Vega and Santiago beginning on March 30, 1914. Jose Bordas Valdes was elected president without opposition on June 15, 1914. US naval ships intervened to end the bombardment of Puerto Plata beginning on June 26, 1914. US troops were deployed in support of the government in Santo Domingo in July 1914. The US mediated the signing of a ceasefire agreement between government and rebel representatives on August 6, 1914. Some 500 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(237-1257) Post-Conflict Phase (August 7, 1914-April 14, 1916): Ramon Baez was elected as provisional president by the Congress, and he was inaugurated as president on August 27, 1914. On September 8, 1914, the US government agreed to supervise the upcoming presidential elections. Juan Isidro Jimenez was elected president on October 27, 1914, and he was inaugurated as president on December 4, 1914.

(237-1258) Conflict Phase (April 15, 1916-June 30, 1922): General Arias led a rebellion against the government beginning on April 15, 1916. Some 280 US troops were deployed in support of the government in Santo Domingo beginning on May 5, 1916 (some 3,000 US troops would eventually be deployed in the country). President Jimenez resigned on May 7, 1916. Three US soldiers were killed during clashes in June-July 1916. Francisco Henriquez Carvajal was elected as provisional president by the Congress on July 25, 1916, and he was inaugurated as president on July 31, 1916. US troops and Dominicans clashed near Santo Domingo on October 24-25, 1916, resulting in the deaths of two US soldiers and three Dominicans. Captain H. S. Knapp of the US Navy established a military government in the Dominican Republic on November 29, 1916, and he dismissed the government of President Henriquez Carvajal on December 8, 1916. US troops and Dominican rebels led by Vicente Evangelista clashed in eastern Dominican Republic beginning on January 10, 1917. Vicente Evangelista and 200 rebels surrendered to US troops in El Seibo on July 4, 1917. US troops shot and killed Vicente Evangelista as he was "attempting to escape" on July 6, 1917. Ramon Batia, Bullito Batia, and Martin Peguero led a rebellion against the US military government in eastern Dominican Republic beginning in July 1918.  US troops were attacked near Manchado on August 13, 1918, resulting in the deaths of four US soldiers.  Admiral Thomas Snowden was appointed military administrator on February 25, 1919. Dominican nationalists, including Fabio Fiallo and Americo Lugo, established the Dominican National Union (Union Nacional Dominicana - UND) in February 1920. Rebel leaders, Ramon Batia and Bullito Batia, surrendered to US troops on May 8-9, 1922, and Martin Peguero surrendered to US troops in Vasca on May 13, 1922. Some 140 rebels surrendered to US troops between April 6 and May 31, 1922. The US government and Dominican political parties signed the Memorandum of the Agreement of Evacuation on June 30, 1922, which provided for the withdrawal of US troops from the country. Some 1,000 individuals, including 140 US soldiers, were killed during the conflict.

(237-1259) Post-Conflict Phase (July 1, 1922-September 18, 1924): Juan Bautista Vicini Burgos was inaugurated as provisional president on October 21, 1922, and the US military governor left the country on October 24, 1922. General Horacio Vasquez was elected president on March 15, 1924, and he was inaugurated as president on July 12, 1924. The US sent observers to monitor the elections. A new constitution went into effect on June 13, 1924. US troops completed their withdrawal from the country on September 18, 1924.

(237-1261) Crisis Phase (February 23, 1930-February 27, 1963): General Estrella Urena led a rebellion against the government of President Horacio Vasquez beginning on February 23, 1930. President Vasquez formally resigned on March 2, 1930, and General Estrella Urena became provisional president on March 3, 1930. General Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina was elected president on May 16, 1930, and he was inaugurated on August 16, 1930. Opposition political parties claimed election fraud. General Trujillo suppressed opposition to his government, and forced many political opponents to go into exile. A new constitution was approved by a constitutional convention on June 9, 1934. Jacinto Peynardo was elected president on May 17, 1938, but General Trujillo continued to exert influence over the government. President Peynardo died in March 1940, and Vice-President Manual Troncoso assumed the presidency. General Trujillo was inaugurated as president on May 18, 1942. General Trujillo was re-elected president on May 16, 1947. Costa Rica imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on May 9, 1948. Dominican exiles attempted invasions on June 19-20 and July 1959, but the invasions were defeated by government troops. Some 80 individuals were killed during the invasions. Venezuela accused the Dominican Republic of "flagrant violations of human rights," and referred the matter to the Organization of American States (OAS) Council on February 5, 1960. The OAS Council established a four member fact-finding mission (El Salvador, Mexico, Uruguay, US) to investigate the accusation beginning on February 8, 1960. On June 8, 1960, the OAS fact-finding commission reported that the Dominican Republic had violated the human rights of its citizens. The Dominican Congress declared a state-of-emergency at President Hector Trujillo Molina’s request on July 1, 1960. President Trujillo Molina resigned on August 2, 1960, and Vice-President Joaquin Balaguer was sworn in as president on August 3, 1960. OAS foreign ministers imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) and military sanctions (arms embargo) against the government on August 19, 1960. Provincial and local elections were held on December 15, 1960. OAS foreign ministers imposed economic sanctions against the government on Janaury 4, 1961. Roman Catholic Bishop Thomas Reilly accused the government of "acts of intimidation and persecution" on March 12, 1961. General Trujillo was assassinated by a group led by General Juan Tomas Diaz on May 30, 1961, and two of the assassins were killed by government police.  The US mobilized naval ships in the area between May 30, 1961 and June 10, 1961.  Lt. General Rafael Trujillo, the son of the former dictator, took over as chief-of-staff of the Dominican armed forces on June 2, 1961. President Joaquin Balaguer promised to democratize the country and hold multiparty elections the following year. The US referred the matter of reports of human rights abuses by Dominican police to the OAS Council on June 2, 1961.  The OAS Council established a five-member fact-finding mission headed by Augusto Guillermo Arango of Panama on June 5, 1961. The OAS fact-finding mission returned to Washington DC on June 15, 1961. The National Civic Union (Union Civica Nacional - UCN) was established on July 15, 1961. President Balaguer requested electoral assistance from the OAS Council on August 6, 1961. The OAS Council established a technical assistance mission to the country on August 7, 1961. The OAS mission, which consisted of representatives from Panama, Uruguay, and the US (including three staff members), provided technical assistance from August 24 to October 19, 1961 and June 24 to December 20, 1962. The OAS fact-finding mission headed by Augusto Guillermo Arango of Panama returned to the Dominican Republic on September 12, 1961. Government police and demonstrators clashed in Ciudad Trujillo and other cities on October 16-25, 1961, resulting in the deaths of four individuals. Lt. General Rafael Trujillo resigned as chief-of-staff of the armed forces, and fled the country on November 17, 1961. President Balaguer assumed control of the armed forces, and declared a state-of-emergency on November 19, 1961. The US deployed 14 naval ships near the country in support of President Balaguer between November 19 and December 5, 1961. Francisco Jose Oyarzun of Chile mediated negotiations between President Balaguer and Viriato Alberto Fiallo, leader of the UCN, in Santo Domingo on December 4-5, 1961. A seven-member provisional Council of State was installed on January 1, 1962. The OAS Council lifted economic sanctions against the government on January 4, 1962, and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the provisional government on January 7, 1962. Government troops fired on demonstrators in Santo Domingo on January 16, 1962, resulting in the deaths of four individuals. The Council of State was overthrown by a seven-member military junta on January 16, 1962, but the military junta was overthrown on January 18, 1962. Rafael Bonnelly was installed as chairman of the Council of State. The Council of State imposed a state-of-emergency on February 21, 1962. The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government on March 8, 1962. Parliamentary elections were held on December 20, 1962, and the Dominican Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Dominicano - PRD) won 23 out of 27 seats in the Senate and 52 out of 74 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Juan Bosch Gavino of the PRD was elected president with some 60 percent of the vote on December 20, 1962, and he was inaugurated as president on February 27, 1963. The OAS sent 36 observers from 17 countries to monitor the presidential election from December 17-21, 1962. Government troops suppressed a rebellion in Palma Sol on December 28-30, 1962, resulting in the deaths of some 30 individuals. Some 200 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(237-1262) Post-Crisis Phase (February 28, 1963-September 24, 1963): A new constitution went into effect on April 29, 1963.

(237-1263) Crisis Phase (September 25, 1963-April 23, 1965): President Bosch Gavino was deposed in a military coup on September 25, 1963, and a military junta took control of the government on September 26, 1963. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations), economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance), and military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the Dominican Republic on September 25, 1963. Venezuela imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on September 25, 1963. Reid Cabral was appointed president by the military junta. Britain, France, West Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Honduras provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on November 1, 1963. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on December 14, 1963, and the US provided $100 million in economic assistance to the military junta between January 1964 and April 1965.

(237-1264) Conflict Phase (April 24, 1965-May 5, 1965): Some 2,700 Dominican soldiers led by Colonel Francisco Caamano Deno rebelled against the government of President Reid Cabral on April 24, 1965. The rebels seized the radio station and the headquarters of the army in Santo Domingo. President Cabral was overthrown during a military rebellion led by Colonel Francisco Caamano on April 25-26, 1965, and Jose Rafael Molina Urena was named provisional president on April 26, 1965. Brigadier Elias Wessin y Wessin led a rebellion against the government of President Molina Urena. President Molina Urena requested military assistance from the US on April 27, 1965. Some 32,000 US troops were deployed in support of the government beginning on April 28, 1965. The Vatican (Papal Nuncio) attempted to mediate a ceasefire agreement on April 28-30, 1965. The OAS Council appealed for a ceasefire and offered to mediate on April 29, 1965. The OAS Council established a good offices commission (Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala, Panama) chaired by Ricardo Colombo of Argentina on April 30, 1965.  The OAS Council established Operation Socorro (Operation Help) consisting of 30 personnel to provide humanitarian assistance to some 500,000 individuals affected by the conflict on May 3, 1965.  The Soviet Union referred the matter to the United Nations (UN) Security Council, and the UN Security Council held 16 meetings concerning the matter from May 3-25, 1965.  Colonel Caamano was elected president by the Dominican Congress on May 4, 1965.  On May 5, 1965, the OAS good offices commission facilitated the signing of a ceasefire agreement (Act of Santo Domingo).  Some 3,500 civilians and government soldiers were killed during the conflict.

(237-1265) Post-Conflict Phase (May 6, 1965-September 20, 1966): OAS foreign ministers established the Inter-American Peace Force (IAPF) on May 6, 1965. The IAPF, which was commanded by General Hugo Panasco Alvim of Brazil, consisted of 12,770 personnel (1,150 Brazilian troops, 25 Costa Rican military police, 3 Salvadoran troops, 250 Honduran troops, 164 Nicaraguan troops, 178 Paraguayan troops, and 11,000 US troops). The OAS secretary-general established a coordinating committee of Operation Sorocco, which --consisted of representatives of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), CARE, and Church World Service (CWS), on May 8, 1965. Government soldiers and rebel soldiers resumed military hostilities on May 13, 1965. The UN Security Council approved a resolution on May 14, 1965, which appealed for a cessation of military hostilities and invited the UN secretary-general to send a representative to the Dominican Republic. The UN secretary-general appointed Jose Antonio Mayobre of Venezuela as his personal representative to the Dominican Republic.  The UN Security Council established the UN Mission in the Dominican Republic to "observe the situation in the Dominican Republic and to report to the Secretary-General, and through him to the Security Council, on breaches of the ceasefire called by the Council or any events which might effect the maintenance of peace and order in the country."  DOMREP consisted of two military observers commanded by Major-General Indar J. Rikhye of India.  Brazil, Canada, and Ecuador contributed military observers to the UN mission.  DOMREP was disbanded on October 22, 1966.  The OAS good offices commission completed its mission on May 20, 1965. The OAS good offices commission issued a final report on June 2, 1965. OAS foreign ministers established a conciliation committee (Brazil, El Salvador, US) on June 2, 1965. The OAS conciliation committee mediated the signing of the Act of Dominican Reconciliation by the parties on August 31, 1965, which provided for the establishment of a provisional government to rule the country until elections. Hector Garcia-Godoy became provisional president on September 4, 1965. Five individuals were killed in political violence in Santo Domingo on October 16-19, 1965. Government troops and rebel soldiers led by Colonel Francisco Caamana clashed in Santiago de los Caballeros on December 19, 1965, resulting in the deaths of 28 individuals. Ten individuals were killed in political violence in Santo Domingo on December 19-24, 1965. Nineteen individuals were killed in political violence in Santo Domingo on February 9-13, 1966. Congressional elections were held on June 1, 1966, and the Reformist Party (RP) won 48 out of 74 seats in the House of Representatives. Joaquin Balaguer of the Reformist Party was elected president on June 1, 1966, and he was inaugurated as president on August 16, 1966. The OAS sent 41 observers from 18 countries to monitor the presidential election from May to June 2, 1966, and reported that the election had been free and fair. The US sent 72 observers to monitor the elections. US troops were withdrawn from the country beginning on June 28, 1966.  The IAPF was withdrawn from the country on September 20, 1966. Forty-eight US soldiers and IAPF personnel were killed during the intervention. Some 500 individuals were killed in political violence between May 1965 and September 1966.

(237-1266) Post-Crisis Phase (September 21, 1966-February 3, 1973): Parliamentary elections were held on May 16, 1970, and the PR won 60 out of 74 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. President Balaguer Ricardo was re-elected with 55 percent of the vote on May 16, 1970, and he was inaugurated for a second term on August 16, 1970. The Domincan Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Dominicano - PRD) led by Juan Bosch boycotted the presidential and parliamentary elections. The Organization of American States (OAS) sent three observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections, and issued a report on May 19, 1970. Some 45 individuals were killed in election-related violence. The government suppressed a military rebellion on January 30, 1971. Government police and left-wing rebels clashed near Santo Domingo on January 12, 1972, resulting in the deaths of eight government policemen and four rebels.

(237-1267) Crisis Phase (February 4, 1973-August 16, 1978): Some 2,000 government troops and ten rebels clashed in Azua province on February 4-6, 1973, resulting in the deaths of three government soldiers and one rebel. President Balaguer declared a state-of-emergency on February 7, 1973. President Balaguer Ricardo was re-elected with some 90 percent of the vote on May 16, 1974. Some 25 individuals were killed in election-related violence. The Communist Party of the Dominican Republic (CPDR) was legalized on November 9, 1977. Two individuals were killed in political violence in Esperanza on February 19, 1978. Guillermo Rubirosa Fermin, leader of Los Trinitarios, was killed by government police in San Pedro de Macoris on March 26, 1978. Silvestre Antonio Guzman Fernandez of the PRD was elected president on May 16, 1978, and he was inaugurated as president on August 16, 1978. The OAS sent three observers from Colombia, Ecuador, and Guatemala to monitor the presidential election. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(237-1268) Post-Crisis Phase (August 17, 1978-present): Salvador Jorge Blanco of the PRD was elected president with 47 percent of the vote on May 16, 1982.  President Guzman Fernandez committed suicide on July 4, 1982, and he was succeeded by Majluta Azar. Salvador Jorge Blanco was inaugurated as president on August 16, 1982. Congressional elections were held on May 16, 1986, and the Christian Social Reform Party (Partido Reformista Social Cristiano - PRSC) won 56 out of 120 seats in the House of Representatives and 21 out of 30 seats in the Senate.  Joaquin Balaguer Ricardo of the PRSC was elected president on May 16, 1986, and he was inaugurated as president on August 16, 1986. Five individuals were killed in political violence on June 23, 1986.  Joaquin Balaguer Ricardo was elected as president with 36 percent of the vote on May 16, 1990.  Juan Bosch of the Dominican Liberation Party (Partido de la Liberacion Dominicana - PLD) won 34 percent of the vote, and claimed election fraud.  The OAS sent four observers to monitor the presidential election from May 13, 1990 to May 24, 1990.  The National Democratic Institute (NDI) and the Carter Center/Council of Freely Elected Heads of Government (CC/CFEHG) sent ten observers headed by Jimmy Carter to jointly observe the presidential election on May 14-17, 1990.  The NDI and CC/CFEHG mission reported that election irregularities were insufficient to have changed the outcome of the election.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 16, 1994, and the PRD won 57 out of 120 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The PRSC won 50 out of 120 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  President Balaguer Ricardo was re-elected as president with 42 percent of the vote on May 16, 1994.  Opposition groups claimed election fraud.  The OAS Council sent 27 observers to monitor the election process from April 25 to August 17, 1994.  The International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) sent observers to monitor the presidential election.  The NDI sent observers to monitor the presidential election, and reported that there had been election irregularities that could have affected the outcome.  President Balaguer Ricardo agreed to hold a new presidential election.  Leonel Fernandez Reyna of the PLD was elected president with 51 percent of the vote in the second round of the elections on June 30, 1996, and he was inaugurated as president on August 16, 1996.  The NDI and CC/CFEHG sent 40 observers from eleven countries headed by Belisario Betancur of Colombia and Ramiro de Leon Carpio of Guatemala to jointly observe the presidential elections from May 12 to July 1, 1996.  The OAS sent 25 observers to monitor the presidential election from May 4, 1996 to July 1, 1996.  Some 15 individuals were killed in election-related violence.  Parliamentary and municipal elections were held on May 16, 1998, and the PRD won 83 out of 149 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The PLD won 49 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The OAS sent 10 observers headed by Santiago Murray of Argentina to monitor the elections from May 13 to May 20, 1998.  Twelve individuals were killed in election-related violence.  The NDI sent a pre-election assessment mission consisting of five personnel on April 9-14, 2000.  Two individuals were killed in political violence in Moca on April 29, 2000.  Hipoloti Mejia of the PRD was elected president on May 16, 2000, and he was inaugurated as president on August 16, 2000.  The OAS sent 37 observers headed by Santiago Murray of Argentina to monitor the presidential election.  The IFES sent 19 observers headed by Rosa Marina Zelaya of Nicaragua to monitor the presidential election on May 11-18, 2000.  The NDI and CC/CFEHG sent 24 observers headed by Belisario Betancur of Colombia to jointly observe the presidential election on May 12-18, 2000.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 16, 2002, and the PRD won 73 out of 150 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The PLD won 41 seats, and the PRSC won 36 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The OAS sent observers headed by Diego Paz Bustamante to monitor the elections.  Five individuals were killed in political violence on January 29-30, 2004.  Leonel Fernandez Reyna of the PLD was elected president with 57 percent of the vote on May 16, 2004.  The OAS sent observers to monitor the presidential election.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 16, 2006, and the PLD won 96 out of 178 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The PRD won 60 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  Some 100 individuals have been killed in political violence since August 1978.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), July 1, 1996, April 30, 2000, May 19, 2000, August 16, 2000; Banks and Muller, 1998, 268-271; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 762-767; Beigbeder, 1994, 231-233; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 94-95, 126; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), May 16, 2000, May 18, 2000, January 30, 2004, May 17, 2004; Butterworth, 1976, 264-271, 400-402; Calder, 1984; Carter Center (CC) press release, May 10, 1996, June 26, 1996, May 12, 2000, May 18, 2000; Clodfelter, 1992, 1167; Donald, 1975, 36-49; Donelan and Grieve, 1973, 254-258; Ellsworth, 1974, 65-71; Espinal, 1998, 93-113; Facts on File, May 9-15, 1948, April 6-12, 1961, June 1-7, 1961, June 8-14, 1961, June 15-21, 1961, October 26-November 1, 1961, November 16-22, 1961, January 11-17, 1962, February 22-28, 1962, December 27-31, 1962, September 19-25, 1963, December 12-18, 1963, April 22-28, 1965, April 29-May 5, 1965, May 13-19, 1965, May 20-26, 1965, May 27-June 2, 1965, October 14-20, 1965, December 23-29, 1965, February 10-16, 1966, May 19-25, 1966, July 23-29, 1970, January 16-22, 1972, February 4-10, 1973, May 25, 1974, March 3, 1978, April 21, 1978, June 2, 1978, August 25, 1978; Gleijeses 1978; Hispanic American Report (HAR), March 1960, April 1960, August 1960, September 1960, October 1960, February 1961, July 1961, August 1961, September 1961, November 1961, December 1961, January 1962, February 1962, March 1962, February 1963, March 1963, November 1963, February 1964; International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) press release, May 11, 2000; Ireland, 1941, 43-53;Jessup, 1998, 163-165; Keesing's Record of World Events, July 11-18, 1959, September 24-October 1, 1960, April 27-May 4, 1963; October 26-November 2, 1963, June 26-July 3, 1965, July 17-24, 1965, September 25-October 2, 1965, July 2-9, 1966, June 13-20, 1970, March 5-11, 1973, June 17-23, 1974, January 13, 1978, November 5, 1982, April 1987, June 1996, May 1998; Langer, 1972, 861-862, 1073, 1248-1250; Munro, 1961, 477-493; Munro, 1964, 78-125, 259-325; Munro, 1974, 44-70, 294-308; National Democratic Institute (NDI) press release, April 14, 2000, May 18, 2000; National Democratic Institute (NDI) statement, April 14, 2000, May 18, 2000; Nye, 1971, 145-146; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, May 14, 1998, March 21, 2000, May 23, 2002, May 16, 2004; Pons 1998; Reuters, May 17, 2000, August 16, 2000; Robertson, 1943, 410-416; Scheina, 2003, 48-53; Schoonmaker 1990; Schwarz, 1970, 130-132; Slater, 1964, 268-291; Stuart, 1943, 288-317; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1925 (supplement), 82, 1930, 560; Tillema, 1991, 17-18; Wainhouse, 1973, 459-501; Weisburd, 1997, 219-224; Wells, 1963, 150-163; Wright, 1964, 79-90.]

(238-1270) Crisis Phase (August 16, 1906-May 19, 1912): General Jose Miguel Gomez and General Faustino Guerra led a liberal rebellion of some 20,000 rebels against the government in Pinar del Rio province on August 16, 1906. President Estrada Palma requested the deployment of US naval ships to the region on September 8, 1906, and the US naval ship Denver was deployed in support of the government in the Havana harbor on September 12, 1906. President Estrada Palma suspended the constitution on September 9, 1906. The US deployed some 125 troops in support of the government in Havana on September 13, 1906, but the US troops were withdrawn on September 14, 1906. President Theodore Roosevelt of the US appointed William Taft and Robert Bacon to mediate negotiations between the parties on September 17, 1906. US mediation failed, and President Estrada Palma resigned on September 28, 1906. Some 6,000 US peacekeeping troops commanded by General J. Franklin Bell were deployed to maintain order throughout the island on September 28, 1906, and William Taft established a provisional government on the island on September 29, 1906. Charles Magoon was appointed as head of the provisional government on October 13, 1906. Governor Magoon nullified the December 1905 and March 1906 parliamentary elections on December 3, 1906. Provincial and municipal elections were held on August 1, 1908, and the CP won three out of six governorships and 28 mayoralties. Congressional elections were held on November 14, 1908, and the LP won 51 out of 83 seats in the House of Representatives. General Jose Miguel Gomez of the PL was elected president on November 14, 1908, and he was inaugurated as president on January 28, 1909. Colonel Enoch Chowder of the US supervised the presidential elections. US peacekeeping troops completed their withdrawal from the island on March 31, 1909. Congressional elections were held in November 1910. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(238-1271)  Conflict Phase (May 20, 1912-June 27, 1912): Evaristo Estenoz led a Negro rebellion against the government beginning on May 20, 1912. US naval ships were deployed in support of the government near Cuba on May 25, 1912. Some 2,500 US troops were deployed in support of the government in the Oriente province and Havana from June 5 to August 5, 1912. The rebellion ended after Evaristo Estenoz was killed by government troops on June 27, 1912. Some 5,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(238-1272) Post-Conflict Phase (June 28, 1912-February 8, 1917): US naval ships were withdrawn from Cuban waters on June 30, 1912. General Mario Garcia Menocal of the CP was elected president on November 1, 1912, and he was inaugurated as president in May 1913. Presidential elections were held on November 1, 1916, but results were declared invalid in Santa Clara and Oriente provinces. Some 50 individuals were killed in election-related violence in 1916. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between June 1912 and February 1917.

(238-1273) Conflict Phase (February 9, 1917-April 18, 1917): Former President Gomez led a liberal rebellion against the government in Santa Clara, Camaguey, and Oriente provinces beginning on February 9, 1917. Presidential elections were held again in Santa Clara province on February 14, 1917. US Secretary-of-State Robert Lansing expressed support for the government on February 18, 1917, and provided military assistance (weapons and ammunition) to the government. US troops were deployed in support of the government in Camaguey Province on February 19, 1917. Government troops defeated rebel troops near Placetas in Santa Clara Province on March 8, 1917, resulting in the deaths of some 20 government soldiers and 200 rebels. Government troops defeated rebel troops near Arroyo Hondo in Camaguey Province on March 20, 1917, resulting in the deaths of 27 rebels. Rebels troops surrendered to government troops in Oriente Province on March 30, 1917. Rebel troops commanded by General Gustavo Caballero were defeated by government troops in Oriente Province on April 18, 1917, resulting in the deaths of some 40 rebels. Some 500 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(238-1274) Post-Conflict Phase (April 19, 1917-January 31, 1921): Mario Garcia Menocal was elected president, and he was inaugurated as president on May 20, 1917. Alfredo Zayas of the Cuban Popular Party (Partido Popular Cubano - PPC) and the CP was elected president on November 1, 1920. The US sent 14 observers to monitor the presidential election (one observer was sent to each of the 14 provinces). The PL claimed election fraud. General Enoch Crowder of the US mediated an agreement in January 1921, which provided for another presidential election.

(238-1275) Post-Crisis Phase (February 1, 1921-September 29, 1930): Alfredo Zayas was elected president on March 15-26, 1921, and he was inaugurated as president on May 20, 1921. General Enoch Crowder of the US supervised the presidential election, and he issued a final report on the election on April 7, 1921. The PL had boycotted the presidential election. The US recognized the election of Alfredo Zayas as president on April 17, 1921. US troops were withdrawn from Camaguey Province on February 15, 1922. General Gerardo Machado of the PL was elected president on November 1, 1924, and he was inaugurated as president on May 20, 1925. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on March 5, 1928. The Nationalist Union (Union Nacionalista - UN) led by Colonel Carlos Mendieta did not participate in the elections. President Machado was re-elected without opposition on November 1, 1928.

(238-1276) Crisis Phase (September 30, 1930-December 10, 1935): President Machado was granted emergency powers by the Congress after student demonstrations in Havana on September 30-October 4, 1930, resulting in the death of one individual. Congressional elections were held on November 1, 1930. President Machado declared a state-of-siege on November 30, 1930. On August 10, 1931, President Machado proclaimed martial law after clashes occurred between supporters of the CP and PL. Sumner Welles of the US began mediation between political factions on July 1, 1933. President Machado resigned on August 11 1933, and Carlos Manuel de Cespedes was appointed as provisional president on August 12, 1933. The US deployed naval vessels near Havana on August 13-18, 1933. President Cespedes was overthrown in a military rebellion led by Sargeant Fulgencio Batista on September 4-5, 1933, and Ramon Grau San Martin was appointed as president on September 10, 1933. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government, and deployed naval vessels near Havana on September 5-9, 1933. Mexico expressed support for the government of President Martin on September 8, 1933. Some 100 government soldiers were killed during the rebellion, which was suppressed by government troops on October 2, 1933. Peru provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Martin on October 11, 1933, and Spain provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Martin on October 12, 1933. The government suppressed a rebellion in Havana on November 8-9, 1933. Some 220 government soldiers were killed during the rebellion. Sumner Wells ended his mediation effort on November 24, 1933. President Martin resigned on January 17, 1934, and Colonel Carlos Mendieta of the UN was named provisional president on January 18, 1934. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Mendieta on January 23, 1934. Former President Martin established the Cuban Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Cubano - PRC) in opposition to the government on February 8, 1934. Rebels exploded bombs in Havana on March 29, 1934 and Santiago on April 9, 1934, resulting in the deaths of two government soldiers. Rebels exploded several bombs in Havana on April 21-27, 1934, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. The government restored the 1901 constitution on June 1, 1935. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(238-1277) Post-Crisis Phase (December 11, 1935-December 22, 1936): President Mendieta resigned on December 11, 1935, and Jose Barnet was appointed as provisional president on December 12, 1935. Miguel Mariano Gomez was elected president on January 10, 1936, and he was inaugurated as president on May 21, 1936.

(238-1278) Crisis Phase (December 23, 1936-October 10, 1940): President Gomez was overthrown in a military rebellion led by Colonel Batista on December 23, 1936, and Vice-President Frederico Laredo Bru assumed the presidency on December 24, 1936. The Cuban Communist Party (Partido Comunista Cubano - PCC) was legalized on September 25, 1938. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on November 15, 1939, and approved a new constitution on July 1, 1940. Colonel Batista of the Socialist Democratic Coalition (Coalicion Socialista Democratica - CSD) was elected president on July 14, 1940, and he was inaugurated as president on October 10, 1940. The new constitution went into effect on October 10, 1940.

(238-1279) Post-Crisis Phase (October 11, 1940-March 9, 1952): The government suppressed a military rebellion on February 3, 1941. Congressional elections were held on March 15, 1942. Ramon Grau San Martin of the PRC was elected president on June 1, 1944. Congressional elections were held on June 1, 1946. Carlos Prio Socarras was elected president on June 1, 1948, and he was inaugurated as president on October 10, 1948.

(238-1280) Crisis Phase (March 10, 1952-December 1, 1956): President Carlos Prio Socarras was deposed in a military coup led by General Fulgencio Batista Zaldivar on March 10, 1952, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. A provisional government headed by General Batista Zaldivar took control of the country on March 11, 1952. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of General Batista Zaldivar on March 27, 1952, and provided military assistance (military advisors) to the government beginning in 1952. Four individuals were killed in political violence in Havana on February 23, 1953. Government troops suppressed a rebellion led by Fidel Castro in Santiago de Cuba and Bayamo, Oriente province on July 26, 1953, resulting in the deaths of 77 rebels and 19 government soldiers. Fidel Castro was captured and imprisoned. The Communist Party of Cuba (Partido Communista de Cuba - PCC) was banned by the government on November 2, 1953. General Batista Zaldivar was elected president without opposition on November 1, 1954, and he was inaugurated as president on February 24, 1955. Fidel Castro was released from the Isle of Pines prison on May 15, 1955. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Colonel Ramon Barquin on April 3, 1956, and some 250 military personnel were arrested for their involvement in the military rebellion. Government troops suppressed a rebellion in Matanzas on April 29, 1956, resulting in the deaths of 10 rebels. Some 250 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(238-1281) Conflict Phase (December 2, 1956-January 8, 1959): Fidel Castro resumed the rebellion against the government of President Batista Zaldivar on December 2, 1956. The Dominican Republic provided military assistance to the rebels between December 1956 and December 1957. Some 50 rebels attacked the presidential palace in Havana on March 13, 1957, resulting in the deaths of 30 rebels and five government soldiers. On May 20, 1957, Fidel Castro appealed to the US to stop sending weapons to the Cuban government. Government troops suppressed a naval revolt in Cienfuegos on September 5, 1957, resulting in the deaths of some 300 rebels and 12 government soldiers. The US imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the government and rebels on April 2, 1958.  Fidel Castro called for a rebellion against the government of General Batista Zaldivar on April 1, 1958. Some 12,000 government troops commanded by General Eulogio Cantillo Porra launched a military offensive against the rebels in the Sierra Maestra on May 24, 1958, resulting in the deaths of some 230 soldiers and 100 rebels. Rebel troops launched a military offensive against the government in August 1958. On August 28, 1958, President Batista Zaldivar requested that the US lift military sanctions against the government. Government troops and rebels commanded by Ernesto "Che" Guevara clashed in Camaguey province on September 13-14, 1958, resulting in the deaths of some 40 government soldiers. Andres Rivero Aguero was elected president on November 1, 1958. Opposition political parties claimed election fraud. Rebel troops captured Santa Clara and Santiago on December 31, 1958. President Batista Zaldivar and 50 supporters fled into exile to the Dominican Republic on January 1, 1959. Some 500 Cubans fled to the US. Fidel Castro named Manuel Urrutia as provisional president and Jose Miro Cardona as prime minister on January 3, 1959. Argentina, Britain, Brazil, Chile, Egypt, and Nicaragua provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Urrutia. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Urrutia on January 7, 1959. Fidel Castro and 5,000 rebels arrived in Havana on January 8, 1959. Some 8,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(238-1282) Post-Conflict Phase (January 9, 1959-October 31, 1965): The US withdrew 34 military advisors from Cuba on January 27, 1959. Fidel Castro formed a government as prime minister on February 16, 1959. Some 621 individuals were executed by the government for war crimes between January 8 and May 15, 1959. President Manuel Urrutia resigned on July 17, 1959. The government suppressed a rebellion on August 14, 1959, and some 4,000 individuals were arrested for suspected involvement in the rebellion. The Dominican Republic provided military assistance to the rebels. President Dwight Eisenhower of the US imposed economic sanctions (reduction in sugar quota) against the government on July 6, 1960. Government troops suppressed a rebellion in Las Villas province on September 20-October 9, 1960, and five rebel leaders were executed on October 13, 1960. The government nationalized banks and large industries on October 16, 1960, and the US imposed economic sanctions (partial trade embargo) against the government on October 19, 1960. On October 28, 1960, the US brought to the attention of the Organization of American States (OAS) Council the allegation that Cuba was receiving military assistance from the Soviet bloc. Cardinal Arteaga, the archbishop of Havana, and eight other Roman Catholic bishops criticized the government on December 4, 1960. Some 17,000 Soviet troops were deployed in support of the government. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on January 3, 1961. Three individuals were executed for counter-revolutionary activities in Havana on January 17, 1961. El Salvador imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on March 1, 1961. The opposition groups, the Democratic Front and the Revolutionary Movement of the People, established the National Revolutionary Council (NRC) headed by Jose Miro Cardona in New York City on March 21, 1961. Government troops and rebels clashed in the Escambray mountains in March 1961, resulting in the deaths of 39 rebels and 28 government soldiers. The NRC urged Cubans to rebel against the Castro government on April 9, 1961. Some 1,500 Cubans exiles, trained by the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in Guatemala, invaded southern Cuba near Bahia de los Cochinos (Bay of Pigs) on April 17-20, 1961. The Soviet Union demanded the withdrawal of rebels troops from Cuba on April 18, 1961. Some 115 Cuban exiles were killed during the invasion, and another 1,200 were captured by government troops. Several hundred government soldiers were killed during the rebel invasion. Honduras imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on April 24, 1961. Prime Minister Castro declared Cuba a Socialist Republic on May 1, 1961. On September 9, 1961, Costa Rica imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government after the execution of five rebels. Panama imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on December 8, 1961. The US imposed economic sanctions (trade embargo) against Cuba on February 7, 1962. Argentina imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on February 8, 1962. The OAS Meeting of Foreign Ministers (MFM) imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) against the government on February 14, 1962. Ecuador imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on April 3, 1962. On September 2, 1962, the Soviet Union decided to provide the Cuban government with additional weapons and military advisors. OAS foreign ministers declared on October 3, 1962 that the Soviet Union’s intervention in Cuba "threatens the unity of the Americans and its democratic institutions." On October 22, 1962, President John Kennedy of the US accused the Soviet Union of deploying nuclear missiles in Cuba, and President Kennedy ordered an air and naval blockade of Cuba beginning on October 24, 1962. The OAS MFM authorized the use of military force to enforce the blockade on October 23, 1962. On October 28, 1962, President Kennedy and Soviet Prime Minister Khrushchev agreed that Soviet missiles would be removed from Cuba and that the US would not invade Cuba. The Soviet Union withdrew the missile from Cuba on November 7, 1962, and the US blockade of Cuba ended on November 20, 1962. The OAS MFM imposed economic sanctions (trade embargo) against the Cuban government on July 26, 1964.  Fidel Castro agreed to allow Cuban citizens to leave the country in October 1965, and some 260,000 Cubans departed for the US. Some 5,000 individuals were killed, and some 300,000 individuals were displaced since January 1959.

(238-1283) Post-Crisis Phase (November 1, 1966-present): The OAS lifted economic sanctions (trade embargo) against the Cuban government on July 29, 1975.  A new constitution was adopted, and a National Assembly was established in 1976. The National Assembly elected Fidel Castro as head-of-state in December 1976. Some 125,000 Cubans fled to the U.S. in April 1980.  Cuban government military aircraft shot down two aircraft flown by the Cuba-American group Brothers to the Rescue (BTTR) on February 24, 1996, resulting in the deaths of four individuals.  In July 1996, the UN Security Council condemned the Cuban government for shooting down the BTTR aircraft.  On March 21, 1998, the UN Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) condemned human rights abuses in Cuba.  On March 16, 1999, US Secretary-of-State Madeleine Albright condemned the Cuban government for jailing four leading Cuban dissidents.  On March 26, 2003, the EU condemned the Cuban government for the arrest of 72 Cuban dissidents.  The government arrested several armed individuals who hijacked a ferry near Havana on April 3-4, 2003.  On April 11, 2003, the government executed three individuals involved in the hijacking.  Pope John Paul II condemned the Cuba government for the executions on April 13, 2003.  The EU imposed diplomatic sanctions (limitations on high-level government visits) against the government on June 5, 2003,  On September 5, 2003, the European Parliament (EP) condemned human rights violations in Cuba.  On July 31, 2006, Raul Castro assumed presidential duties following Fidel Castro's emergency surgery.  Some 1.2 million individuals have fled as refugees since November 1966.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), September 5, 2003; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 747-756; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 86-87; British Broadcasting Corporation (BCC), March 21, 1998, March 16, 1999, April 4 2003, April 11, 2003, April 26, 2003, June 5, 2003; Butterworth, 1976, 201-203, 280-281, 295-299, 340-341; Cable News Network (CNN), February 24, 1996, February 25, 1996; Clodfelter, 1992, 693-694, 1162-1166; Ellsworth, 1974, 62-64; Facts on File, October 10-16, 1948, March 7-13, 1952, February 20-26, 1953, July 24-30, 1953, January 1-7, 1959, May 14-20, 1959, March 23-29, 1961; Fitzgibbon 1935; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1917, 350-405; Garcia-Perez 1998; Hackett, 1934, 333-335;  Hispanic American Report (HAR), March 1952, April 1952, June 1952, August 1952, September 1952, July 1953, April 1956, March 1957, September 1957, September 1958, December 1958, January 1959, August 1959, September 1961; Jessup, 1998, 60, 111-112, 142-143; Keesing's Record of World Events, April 10-17, 1954, February 7-14, 1959, February 14-21, 1959, July 11-18, 1959, July 23-30, 1960, December 3-10, 1960, June 17-24, 1961, April 21-28, 1962, November 3-10, 1962, September 1991; Langer, 1972, 860-861, 1072, 1245-1248; Lockmiller, 1938; Millett, 1968; Munro, 1961, 455-456; Munro, 1964, 125-140, 469-529; Munro, 1974, 16-43, 342-370; Reuters, March 26, 2003; Robertson, 1943, 401-410; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1933, 582-583, 1934, 696, 1935, 416; Weisburd, 1997, 213-218.]

(239-1285) Crisis Phase (October 1, 1902-April 17, 1907): Presidential elections were held in October 1902, and General Bonilla of the PN won a plurality of the vote. President Terencio Sierra refused to relinquish control of the government to General Bonilla, and Congress elected Juan Angel Arias as president. General Manuel Bonilla led a Conservative rebellion against the government beginning on February 1, 1903, and General Bonilla's rebels took control of the government on April 10, 1903. The US deployed several naval ships near Puerto Cortez on March 21, 1903. Some 45 US peacekeeping troops were deployed to maintain order in Puerto Cortez on March 23-31, 1903. General Dionisio Gutierrez led a Liberal rebellion against the government beginning on December 23, 1906.  Honduran rebels invaded the country from Nicaraguan territory, and captured San Marcos on February 25, 1907.  Some 5,000 troops from El Salvador commanded by General Jose Dolores Perez intervened in support of the government on March 11, 1907.  President Bonilla was overthrown on March 25, 1907, and Vice-President Miguel Davila was sworn in as president on March 26, 1907. US peacekeeping troops were deployed to maintain order in Trujillo, Ceiba, Puerto Cortez, San Pedro Laguna, and Choloma in Honduras from March 18 to June 8, 1907. Nicaraguan troops intervened in support of the rebels, and Nicaraguan troops entered Tegucigalpa on March 27, 1907. Honduran government troops surrendered to Nicaraguan troops on Amapala island on April 12, 1907. Nicaraguan troops withdrew from Tegucigalpa on April 17, 1907. Some 1,000 individuals, including 400 Nicaraguan soldiers and 300 Honduran government soldiers, were killed during the crisis.

(239-1286) Post-Crisis Phase (April 18, 1907-January 19, 1911): The Constituent Assembly elected General Miguel Davila as president in 1908. Rebels led by General Ramon Octavio Marin attacked government military barracks in Puerto Cortes on July 22, 1910.

(239-1287) Crisis Phase (January 20, 1911-July 20, 1911): General Bonilla led a rebellion against the government of President Davila, and the Congress declared martial law on January 20, 1911. Rebel troops captured La Ceiba on January 25, 1911, and President Davila requested US intervention on January 28, 1911. President William Taft of the US appealed for a ceasefire on January 31, 1911, and he offered to facilitate negotiations between the Honduran government and rebels. The parties agreed to a ceasefire on February 8, 1911. Thomas Dawson was appointed as US special envoy to Honduras on February 11, 1911. Thomas Dawson facilitated negotiations on the US warship Tacoma from February 21 to March 14, 1911. President Davilla tendered his resignation on March 28, 1911, and Francisco Bertrand was sworn in as provisional president on March 29, 1911. President Bertrand lifted martial law on July 20, 1911. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(239-1288) Post-Crisis Phase (July 21, 1911-July 21, 1919): Manuel Bonilla was elected president on October 29-31, 1911. President Bonilla died on March 21, 1913, and Vice-President Francisco Bertrand assumed the presidency on March 22, 1913. President Bertrand took full control of the government on July 19, 1919.

(239-1289) Crisis Phase (July 22, 1919-February 2, 1920): General Rafael Lopez Gutierrez led a Liberal rebellion against the government on July 22, 1919. The US offered to mediate negotiations between the parties in September 1919. On September 8, 1919, President Bertrand resigned after ten individuals were killed in political violence in Tegucigalpa. US peacekeeping troops were deployed to maintain order in a neutral zone on September 8-12, 1919. General Lopez Gutierrez assumed de facto control of the government on September 17, 1919. Francisco Bogran was appointed as provisional president, and he was inaugurated as provisional president on October 5, 1919. General Lopez Gutierrez of the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal - PL) was elected president on October 30, 1919, and he was inaugurated as president on February 2, 1920. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(239-1291) Crisis Phase (January 1, 1922-April 4, 1922): Francisco Martinez Funes and General Gregorio Ferrera led a rebellion against the government in Chinaandega province beginning in January 1922. Congress declared martial law on April 3, 1922. President Rafael Lopez Gutierrez requested the deployment of US naval ships on April 3, 1922, but the US decided not to deploy naval ships.

(239-1292) Conflict Phase (April 5, 1922-October 31, 1924): Government troops and rebels clashed near Esperanza and Ocotepeque on April 5-6, 1922, resulting in the deaths of 50 rebels. General Ferrera and 35 rebels were captured by government troops on June 10, 1922. Government troops captured El Paraiso from rebels troops on July 16, 1922, resulting in the deaths of 19 government soldiers. Guatemala provided military assistance (weapons) in support of the government in August 1922. Government troops killed 56 rebels and captured 78 rebels on September 16, 1922. General Tiburcio Carias Andino of the National Party of Honduras - (Partido Nacional de Honduras - PNH) won a plurality of votes in a presidential election on October 28-30, 1923. Eighteen individuals were killed as a result of election-related violence in Tegucigalpa and other cities. General Carias Andino led a rebellion against the government beginning on January 30, 1924. President Lopez Gutierrez took full control of the government on February 1, 1924. The US government imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government of President Lopez Gutierrez on February 13, 1924. Rebels led by General Gregorio Ferrera captured Comayagua on February 26, 1924. Government troops and rebels clashed near La Ceiba on February 28, 1924, resulting in the deaths of some 50 individuals. Some 400 US troops were deployed to maintain order in neutral zones in Tela, La Ceiba, and Puerto Cortez on February 28-March 31, 1924. Rebels led by General Ferrera occupied Tegucigalpa on March 7, 1924. President Gutierrez died of an illness on March 10, 1924, and the Council of Ministers headed by Zuniga Huete assumed control of the government. General Vicente Tosta was appointed as provisional president on April 30, 1924. The US government sent Summer Welles to the country on April 8, 1924, and Summer Welles mediated an agreement between the parties in Amapala on May 3, 1924. The US imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the government and rebels on May 22, 1924. Gregorio Ferrara led a rebellion against the government beginning on August 6, 1924. Some 110 US peacekeeping troops were deployed to maintain order in La Ceiba on September 10-15, 1924. A new constitution went into effect on September 10, 1924. Government troops suppressed the rebellion in October 1924. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(239-1293) Post-Conflict Phase (November 1, 1924-April 9, 1925): Miguel Paz Barahona was elected president without opposition on December 28, 1924, and he was inaugurated as president on February 1, 1925. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Barahona, and lifted military sanctions against the government on February 1, 1925.

(239-1294) Conflict Phase (April 10, 1925-June 18, 1931): General Ferrera led a rebellion against the government beginning on April 10, 1925. Some 165 US peacekeeping troops commanded by Lt. Theodore Cartwright from the USS Denver were deployed to maintain order in La Ceiba on April 19-21, 1925. Vicente Mejia Colindres of the Liberal Party of Honduras (Partido Liberal de Honduras - PLH) was elected president on October 28, 1928, and he was inaugurated as president on January 19, 1929. Rebel troops captured Santa Rosa de Copan on May 1, 1931. Rebel troops were defeated by government troops near Lake Yojoa on June 18, 1931. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(239-1295) Post-Conflict Phase (June 19, 1931-December 21, 1957): General Carias Andino of the PNH was elected president on October 28, 1932, and he was inaugurated as president on February 1, 1933. Congressional elections were held in 1934, and the PNH won 55 seats in the Congress. The PLH won four seats in the Congress. The constitution was amended on April 15, 1936, which allowed General Carias Andino to serve as president for six more years. The government suppressed a Liberal rebellion from April to May 27, 1936. President Carias Andino suppressed a military rebellion led by General Justo Umana in January-February 1937. The government suppressed a rebellion in Octepeque on July 5, 1944, resulting in the deaths of several dozen individuals. Government troops fired on demonstrators in San Pedro Sula on July 6, 1944, resulting in the deaths of some 100 individuals. Juan Manuel Galvez of the PNH was elected president without opposition on October 10, 1948. The PLH had boycotted the presidential election. Juan Manuel Galvez of the PNH was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1949. President Galvez turned over control of the government to Vice-President Julio Lozano Diaz. Local elections were held on November 25, 1951. The United Sates agreed to provide military assistance to the government on May 20, 1954. Villeda Morales of the PLH won a plurality of 48 percent of the vote in a presidential election on October 10, 1954. The Congress convened to elect a new president on December 1, 1954, but President Lozano Dias dissolved the Congress on December 5, 1954. President Lozano Diaz took full control of the government on December 5, 1954. Villeda Morales and other PLH leaders were arrested and sent into exile in July 1956. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Captain Santos Osorto Paz in Tegucigalpa on August 1, 1956, resulting in the deaths of 26 individuals. President Lozano Diaz declared a state-of-emergency on August 2, 1956. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on October 7, 1956, and the National Union Party (NUP) headed by President Lozano Diaz won 56 out of 56 contested seats. Opposition political parties had boycotted the elections. Eleven individuals were killed in election-related violence. President Lozano Diaz was overthrown in a military rebellion led by Major Roberto Galvez on October 20-21, 1956. A three-member military junta headed by Colonel Hector Caraccioli took control of the government, and nullified the recent elections on October 22, 1956. Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Panama, and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on September 21-22, 1957, and the PLH won 36 out of 58 contested seats. The PNH won 18 contested seats. Four individuals were killed in election-related violence. Ramon Villeda Morales of the PLH was elected president by the Constituent Assembly on November 15, 1957, and he was inaugurated as president on December 21, 1957. A new constitution went into effect on December 21, 1957. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(239-1296) Post-Crisis Phase (December 22, 1957-October 2, 1963): Rebels captured the town of Santa Barbara on February 7, 1959, but government troops recaptured the town on February 9, 1959. Government troops suppressed a rebellion by the National Police in July 1959. The OAS provided electoral assistance (three personnel) to the government beginning in July 1963, and issued a report on September 11, 1963.

(239-1297) Crisis Phase (October 3, 1963-January 27, 1982): President Villeda Morales was deposed in a military coup led by Colonel Osvaldo Lopez Arellano on October 3, 1963, and Colonel Lopez Arellano took control of the government on October 4, 1963. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence on October 3-5, 1963. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition), economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance), and military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government of Colonel Lopez Arellano on October 4, 1963. The US lifted diplomatic sanctions against the government on December 14, 1963. The US lifted economic sanctions and military sanctions against the government in January 1964. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on February 16, 1965, and the National Party of Honduras - (Partido Nacional de Honduras - PNH) won 35 out of 64 contested seats. The Liberal Party of Honduras (Partido Liberal de Honduras - PLH), which had won 29 seats in the Constituent Assembly, claimed election fraud. Colonel Lopez Arellano was elected president by the Constituent Assembly on March 15, 1965, and he was inaugurated as president on June 5, 1965. Ramon Ernesto Cruz of the PNH was elected president on March 28, 1971. President Cruz was deposed in a military coup led by General Osvaldo Lopez Arellano on December 4, 1972, and the three-member Defense Council took control of the government. General Lopez Arellano was appointed as head-of-state on December 5, 1972. President Lopez Arellano was deposed in a military coup led by Colonel Juan Alberto Melgar Castro on April 22, 1975, and Colonel Melgar Castro took control of the government on April 23, 1975. The government suppressed a right-wing military coup on October 21, 1977. President Melgar Castro was deposed in a military coup on August 7, 1978, and the three-member Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) headed by General Policarpo Paz Garcia took control of the government on August 8, 1978. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on April 20, 1980, and the PLH won 35 out of 71 contested seats. The military junta turned control of the government over to the Constituent Assembly on July 20, 1980. The Constituent Assembly approved General Paz Garcia as provisional president on July 25, 1980. Roberto Suazo Cordova of the PLH was elected president on November 29, 1981. Parliamentary elections were held on November 29, 1981, and the PLH won 44 out of 82 seats in the Congress. The PNH won 34 seats in the Congress. The Organization of American States (OAS) Council sent three observers to monitor the elections. A new constitution was promulgated on January 20, 1982. Roberto Suazo Cordova was inaugurated as president on January 27, 1982. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(239-1298) Post-Crisis Phase (January 28, 1982-April 2, 1983): The Congress approved General Gustavo Adolfo Alvarez Martinez as head of the armed forces on January 27, 1982. Cinchonero People’s Liberation Movement (Movimiento Popular de Liberacion Cinchonero - MPLC) rebels occupied the chamber of commerce building in San Pedro Sula in September 1982. On November 24, 1982, the government announced a constitutional amendment, which provided for the transfer of the role of commander-in-chief from the president to the head of the armed forces.

(239-1299) Crisis Phase (April 3, 1983-January 26, 1990):  The United National Directorate (Directorio Nacional Unido - DNU) was established in opposition to the government on April 3, 1983. General Alvarez Martinez was dismissed as head of the armed forces on March 31, 1984, and he was replaced by General Walter Lopez Reyes on April 1, 1984. President Suazo Cordova requested that the military declared a state-of-emergency, and he dissolved the National Assembly on May 10, 1985. The military refused the request by President Suazo Cordova. Parliamentary elections were held on November 24, 1985, and the PLH won 67 out of 128 seats in the National Assembly. Jose Azcona del Hoyo of the PLH was elected president on November 24, 1985, and he was inaugurated as president on January 27, 1986. Government troops and Lorenzo Zeleya Popular Revolutionary Forces (Fuerzas Revolucionarias Populares Lorenzo Zeleya - FRP) rebels clashed near San Pedro Sula on March 13, 1987, resulting in the deaths of two rebels.  The government imposed a state-of-emergency on April 8-13, 1988.  Parliamentary elections were held on November 26, 1989, and the National Party of Honduras - (Partido Nacional de Honduras - PNH) won 71 out of 128 seats in the National Assembly. Rafael Leonardo Callejas Romero of the PNH was elected president with 51 percent of the vote on November 26, 1989, and he was inaugurated as president on January 26, 1990. The Organization of American States (OAS) sent four observers to monitor the elections on November 23-28, 1989.  Some 150 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(239-1300) Post-Crisis Phase (January 27, 1990-present):  Carlos Roberto Reina of the PLH was elected president with 53 percent of the vote on November 28, 1993. The PLH won 71 out of 128 contested seats in the National Assembly. The OAS sent 40 observers to monitor the elections from November 18 to December 18, 1993. The OAS observation mission issued a report on March 8, 1994. Parliamentary elections were held on November 30, 1997, and the PLH won 67 out of 128 seats in the National Assembly. The PNH won 55 seats in the National Assembly. Carlos Roberto Flores Facusse of the PLH was elected president on November 30, 1997, and he was inaugurated as president on January 27, 1998. Ricardo Maduro of the PNH was elected president with 53 percent of the vote on November 25, 2001.  Jose Manuel Zelaya Rosales of the PLH was elected president with 49.9 percent of the vote on November 27, 2005.  Parliamentary elections were held on November 27, 2005, and the PLH won 62 out of 128 seats in the National Assembly.  The PNH won 55 seats in the National Assembly.  The OAS sent observers to monitor the elections.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), January 27, 1998; Banks and Muller, 1998, 395-399; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 727-730; Beigbeder, 1994, 232; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) November 28, 2005, November 29, 2005; Current History, April 1924; Degenhardt, 1988, 146-149; Ellsworth, 1974, 94-98; Facts on File, October 10-16, 1948, November 30-December 6, 1951, August 1-7, 1956, October 3-9, 1956, October 24-30, 1956, October 3-9, 1957, February 5-11, 1959, October 3-9, 1963, December 12-18, 1963, March 25-31, 1971, December 3-9, 1972, April 26, 1975, August 11, 1978, November 29, 2001; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1911, 291-307, 1919, 374-395, 1922, 561-576, 1924 (vol. II), 300-324, 1925 (vol. II), 316-337; Hispanic American Report (HAR), January 1949, October 1954, December 1954, August 1956, October 1956, September 1957, October 1957, November 1957, December 1957; Jessup, 1998, 282-284; Keesing's Record of World Events, October 23-30, 1948, March 15-22, 1958, April 24-May 1, 1971, January 1-7, 1973, May 5-11, 1975, June 16, 1978, November 24, 1978, September 26, 1980, April 2, 1982, April 1986, November 1989, November 1997, December 1997; Langer, 1972, 858, 1069, 1243-1244; Munro, 1964, 217-235, 448-456; Munro, 1974, 290-294; New York Times (NYT), November 28, 2005; Schooley, 1987, 32-45; Wright, 1964, 102-110.]

(239-1302) Crisis Phase (April 8, 1920-February 8, 1931): President Manuel Estrada Cabrera was overthrown by the National Assembly on April 8, 1920. Supporters of former President Estrada Cabrera and Unionists in the National Assembly began military hostilities on April 9, 1920. The US deployed the warships Tacoma and Niagara near Guatemala. The US ambassador in Guatemala offered to facilitate negotiations between former President Estrada Cabrera and the Unionists on April 14, 1920. The US ambassador facilitated an agreement on April 14, 1920, which provided for the surrender of former President Estrada Cabrera to the Unionists on April 15, 1920. Vice-President Carlos Herrera was elected as provisional president by the National Assembly on April 17, 1920. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Herrera on June 25, 1920. Carlos Herrera was elected president on August 29, 1920. President Herrera was deposed in a military coup led by General Jose Orellana on December 5, 1921, resulting in the deaths of some 25 individuals. The three-member Military Council headed by General Orellana took control of the government on December 6, 1921. General Orellano was elected provisional president by the National Assembly on December 8, 1921. General Orellano was elected president without opposition on February 15-22, 1922, and he was inaugurated as president on March 4, 1922. Seven individuals were killed in election-related violence in Escuintla. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on April 15, 1922. The government suppressed a rebellion in September 1924, and twelve individuals were executed for their involvement in the rebellion. General Orellana died in September 1926, and General Lazaro Chacon was elected president by the National Assembly on December 5, 1926. The government suppressed a military rebellion in January 1929, and several individuals were executed for their involvement in the rebellion. Bautillo Palma was appointed as provisional president by the National Assembly in December 1930. President Palma was deposed in a military coup led by General Manuel Orellana on December 16, 1930. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of General Orellana on December 17, 1930. General Orellana resigned on December 30, 1930, and Jose Andrade was appointed as provisional president by the Congress on December 31, 1930. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Andrade on January 8, 1931. General Jorge Ubico Castaneda was elected without opposition to a six-year term as president on February 8, 1931. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(239-1303) Post-Crisis Phase (February 9, 1931-June 30, 1944): The government suppressed a rebellion in 1940, and thirteen individuals were executed for their involvement in the rebellion.

(239-1304) Crisis Phase (July 1, 1944-March 15, 1945): President Ubico Castaneda was overthrown in a rebellion on July 1, 1944, and General Federico Ponce was appointed as provisional president on July 2, 1944. General Ponce was overthrown in a rebellion on October 20, 1944. Juan Jose Arevalo of the National Renovation Party (NRP) and Popular Front Liberation Party (PFLP) was elected president on December 17-19, 1944, and he was inaugurated as president on March 15, 1945. A new constitution went into effect on March 15, 1945.

(239-1305) Post-Crisis Phase (March 16, 1945-July 23, 1950): Juan Jose Arevalo of the National Renovation Party (NRP) and Popular Front Liberation Party (PFLP) was elected president on December 17-19, 1944, and he was inaugurated as president on March 15, 1945. A new constitution went into effect on March 15, 1945. The Guatemalan Party of Labor (Partido Guatemalteco de Trabajo - PGT) was established by Jose Manuel Furtuny Arana in opposition to the government on September 28, 1949 (the PGT was originally known as the Communist Party of Guatemala).

(239-1306) Crisis Phase (July 24, 1950-November 30, 1962): The government imposed a state-of-siege from July 24 to August 8, 1950. Government troops suppressed a right-wing rebellion in Guatemala City on November 5, 1950, resulting in the deaths of 26 individuals. Lt. Colonel Jacobo Arbenz Guzman was elected president on November 10-12, 1950, and he was inaugurated as president on March 15, 1951. On July 13, 1951, the government declared a state-of-siege after four individuals were killed during clashes between government troops and demonstrators in Guatemala City on July 12, 1951. The Agrarian Reform Law, which was approved by the National Assembly on June 15, 1952, expropriated property belonging to the United Fruit Company (UFC) and other large landowners. Parliamentary elections were held on January 16-18, 1953, and supporters of President Arbenz Guzman won 27 out of 32 contested seats in the National Assembly. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion on March 29-30, 1953, resulting in the deaths of several individuals. The US government protested the expropriation of UFC property in August 1953. The Roman Catholic archbishop of Guatemala condemned the communist infiltration of the government on April 10, 1954. The Soviet Union provided military assistance (military weapons) to the government beginning on May 15, 1954, resulting in an appeal by Central American countries to the US for assistance in stopping Communist influence in the region. The government arrested opposition leaders beginning on May 31, 1954, and suspended civil rights in the country on June 8, 1954. Some 500 Guatemalan exiles led by Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas, which were trained by the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in Honduras, invaded the country on June 18, 1954. The US imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the government on June 18, 1954. The government referred the matter to the United Nations (UN) Security Council and the Inter-American Peace Committee (IAPC) on June 19, 1954. President Arbenz Guzman declared martial law on June 21, 1954. On June 27, 1954, the IAPC established a five-member commission of inquiry to investigate the dispute. President Arbenz Guzman resigned on June 27, 1954, and he was replaced by a military junta led by Colonel Elfego Monzon on June 29, 1954. Some 1,000 individuals fled the country as refugees. El Salvador provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on July 4, 1954. The US provided humanitarian assistance (medical supplies) on July 4-6, 1954. The military junta elected Colonel Castillo Armas as provisional president on July 8, 1954. Italy, Mexico, and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on July 13, 1954. The military junta established the National Committee for Defence against Communism on July 21, 1954. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion in Guatemala City on August 1-2, 1954, resulting in the deaths of 29 individuals. Colonel Castillo Armas was elected president in a national referendum held on October 10, 1954, and he was inaugurated as president on November 6, 1954. The US provided economic assistance to the government beginning on October 30, 1954. A new constitution was approved by the Constituent Assembly on December 30, 1954, and the constitution went into effect on March 1, 1955. The military government suppressed a communist-inspired military rebellion led by Colonel Francisco Cosenza near Guatemala City on January 19-20, 1955, resulting in the deaths of ten rebels. The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government on June 18, 1955. Parliamentary and municipal elections were held on December 18, 1955. Government police suppressed a military rebellion led by Colonel Carlos Paz Tejada on December 31, 1955. President Castillo Armas signed a new constitution on February 2, 1956, and the National Assembly convened on March 1, 1956. On June 26, 1956, the government declared a state-of-siege after four individuals were killed during clashes between government troops and student demonstrators. The government lifted the state-of-siege on August 26, 1956. President Castillo Armas was assassinated by a presidential guard on July 26, 1957, and Vice-President Louis Gonzales Lopez was sworn in as provisional president on July 27, 1957. President Gonzales Lopez declared a 30-day state-of-siege on July 27, 1957. The government lifted the state-of-siege on August 22, 1957. Ortiz Pasareli was elected president on October 20, 1957. Opposition candidate, General Miguel Ydigoras Fuentes, claimed election fraud. Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Guatemala City on October 22, 1957, resulting in the death of one individual. The government declared a 30-day state-of-siege on October 23, 1957. Three individuals were killed in rioting in Guatemala City on October 24, 1957. President Gonzales Lopez was deposed in a military coup, and a three-member military junta headed by Colonel Oscar Mendoza Azurdia took control of the government on October 25, 1957. The military junta invalidated the results of the presidential election, and Colonel Guillermo Flores Avendano was sworn in as president on October 26, 1957. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Flores Avendano on October 27, 1957. Presidential elections were held on January 19, 1958, but no candidate won a majority of the votes. General Miguel Ydigoras Fuentes of the Party of National Reconciliation (Partido Redencion Nacional - PRN) was elected president by the Congress on February 12, 1958, and he was inaugurated as president on March 2, 1958. The government suppressed a military rebellion led by Colonel Rafael Sessan Pereira at Fort Matamoros near Guatemala City on November 13-17, 1960. President Ydigoras Fuentes requested military assistance from the US. US naval ships were deployed in the Caribbean in support of the government from November 17 to December 7, 1960. Parliamentary elections were held on December 3, 1961, and supporters of the government won 50 out of 66 seats in the parliament. President Ydigoras Fuentes imposed a 30-day state-of-siege on January 24, 1962. Government troops suppressed a rebellion led by Lt. Marco Aurelio Yon Sosa and Lt. Luis Turcios Lima against the government in Bananera on February 6-15, 1962, resulting in the deaths of eight individuals. Government troops and rebels led by former Defense Minister Carlos Paz Tejada clashed in Baja Verapaz on March 12-15, 1962, resulting in the deaths of 15 rebels. Twenty-two individuals were killed during student demonstrations against the government in Guatemala City on March 13-19, 1962. President Ydigoras Fuentes imposed a 30-day state-of-siege on March 19, 1962. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion near Guatemala City on November 25, 1962, resulting in the deaths of four individuals. Some 3,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(239-1307) Conflict Phase (December 1, 1962-December 4, 1996):  Communists established the Revolutionary Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Rebeldes - FAR) in opposition to the government in December 1962. The US provided some $2 million annually in military assistance (weapons and military advisors) to the government from 1962 to 1969. FAR rebels killed five government soldiers on March 22, 1963, and President Ydigoras Fuentes declared a state-of-siege on March 25, 1963. Nicaragua provided military assistance (three military aircraft) to the government on March 27, 1963. President Ydigoras Fuentes was deposed in a military coup led by Colonel Enrique Peralta Azurdia on March 30, 1963. Colonel Peralta Azurdia suspended the constitution, dissolved the parliament, and banned political activities on March 31, 1963. Colonel Peralta Azurdia declared a state-of-emergency in the Zapaca region in 1963. Colonel Harold Houser, head of the US military mission in Guatemala, was shot in Guatemala City on February 9, 1965. A new constitution went into effect on September 15, 1965, which reduced the presidential term of office from six years to four years. Mario Mendez Montenegro, leader of the Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario - PR), was assassinated on October 31, 1965. Twenty-eight individuals were arrested by government police in March and April 1966 (the individuals were later executed by the government). Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro of the PR was elected president on May 10, 1966, and he was inaugurated as president on July 1, 1966. Lt. Luis Turcios Lima, leader of FAR, was killed in a car crash near Guatemala City on October 2, 1966. The government declared a state-of-siege on November 2, 1966. Communist rebels assassinated two US military advisors on January 16, 1968. The government lifted the state-of-siege on June 20, 1968. Ambassador John Mein of the US was assassinated on August 28, 1968. On January 30, 1970, the government declared a state-of-siege following the attempted assassination of Jorge Lucas Cabelleros, the Christian Democratic Party of Guatemala (Partido Democracia Cristiana Guatemalteca - PDCG) presidential candidate. Foreign Minister Alberto Fuentes Mohr was kidnapped on February 26, 1970, but he was released on March 1, 1970. Colonel Carlos Arana Osorio of the National Liberation Movement (Movimiento de Liberacion Nacional - MLN) was elected president with 42 percent of the vote on March 1, 1970, and he was inaugurated as president on July 1, 1970. The Organization of American States (OAS) sent three observers to monitor the presidential election, and issued a report on March 3, 1970. Some 20 individuals were killed in political violence prior to the presidential election. President Arana Osorio declared a state-of-siege on November 13, 1970. President Arana Osorio lifted the state-of-siege on November 23, 1971. The Guerrilla Army of the Poor (Ejercito Guerrillero de los Pobres - EGP) was established in opposition to the government in 1972. General Kjell Eugenio Laugerud Garcia of the MLN/Democratic Institutional Party (Partido Institucional Democratico - PID) coalition won a plurality of the vote in presidential elections on March 3, 1974. Opposition political leaders claimed election fraud, and called for a general strike. General Laugerud Garcia was approved as president by the Congress, and he was inaugurated as president on July 1, 1974. The US imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government in 1977. General Fernando Romeo Lucas Garcia of the PR/PID coalition was elected president on March 5, 1978, and he was inaugurated as president on July 1, 1978. Mario Sandoval Alarcon of the MLN claimed election fraud. Several hundred individuals were killed in civil and political violence in 1979. The Democratic Front Against Repression (Frente Democratico Contra la Represion - FDCR) was established by Rafael Garcia in opposition to the government in March 1979. Municipal elections were held on April 20, 1980. The OAS sent three observers to monitor the elections. Amnesty International (AI) condemned the government for human rights abuses on February 18, 1981. The FAR, EGP, and Guatemalan Labor Party (Patrido Guatemalteca del Trabajo - PGT) established the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca - URNG) in opposition to the government on February 8, 1982. The Guatemala Committee of Patriotic Unity (Comite Guatemalteca de Unidad Patriotica - CGUP) was established by Luis Cardoza Aragon on February 16, 1982. General Angel Anibal Guevara of the Popular Democratic Front (Frente Democratico Popular - FDP) was elected president on March 7, 1982. Opposition political parties claimed that the election had been fraudulent. President Lucas Garcia was deposed in a military coup led by General Efrain Rios Montt, who suspended the constitution and set up a three-member military junta on March 23, 1982. General Rios Montt deposed the other members of the junta and named himself president on June 9, 1982. President Rios Montt declared a state-of-siege on July 1, 1982. The US lifted military sanctions against the government on January 7, 1983. President Rios Montt lifted the state-of-siege on March 23, 1983. President Efrain Rios Montt was deposed in a military coup on August 8, 1983, and General Oscar Mejia Victores took control of the government on August 9, 1983. Some 10,000 civilians were killed in political violence from June 1982 to August 1983, and some 100,000 individuals fled as refugees to southern Mexico. Peace Brigades International (PBI) established a mission to promote human rights in Guatemala in 1983. (PBI disbanded its mission in 1999). Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on July 1, 1984, and the Constituent Assembly convened on August 1, 1984. The OAS sent two observers to monitor the elections. The Constituent Assembly adopted a new constitution on May 31, 1985. Parliamentary elections were held on November 3, 1985, and the PDCG won 51 out of 100 seats in the National Assembly. The National Center Union (Union del Centro Nacional - UCN) won 22 seats in the National Assembly. Vinicio Cerezo Arevalo of the PDCG was elected president in a run-off election held on December 8, 1985, and he was inaugurated as president on January 14, 1986.  Vinicio Cerezo Arevalo of the Christian Democratic Party (CDP) was inaugurated as president on January 14, 1986. Spain facilitated negotiations between representatives of the government and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) in Madrid beginning in October 1987. Government troops killed 16 peasants in the town of Santiago Atitlan on December 2, 1990. The US imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government on December 21, 1990. Jorge Serrano Elias of the Solidarity Action Movement (MAS) was elected president with 66 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections on January 6, 1991, and he was inaugurated as president on January 14, 1991. The US imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against Guatemala in December 1990. The Organization of American States (OAS) Council sent observers to monitor the presidential elections.  The Center for Democracy (CFD) sent 25 observers to monitor the presidential elections from November 4, 1990 to January 7, 1991. The United Nations (UN) mediated negotiations between government and Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR) representatives beginning in July 1991. President Serrano Elias dismissed the National Congress and Supreme Court on May 25, 1993. The US, European Community (EC), and Japan imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government on May 26, 1993. Peru expressed its support for the government on May 26, 1993. President Serrano Elias resigned on June 1, 1993, and Vice-President Gustavo Espina Salguero proclaimed himself president on June 2, 1993. The National Congress election Ramiro De Leon Carpio as provisional president on June 5, 1993. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) provided repatriation assistance to some 24,000 refugees from southern Mexico between 1993 and 1996 (some 26,000 refugees remained in southern Mexico). Representatives of the government and URNG signed a human rights accord on March 19, 1994.  The UN and Guatemalan government established a truth commission chaired by Christian Tomuschatof of Germany on June 23, 1994.  Congressional elections were held on August 14, 1994, and the Guatemalan Republican Front (GRF) won 32 out of 80 seats in the National Congress. The National Advancement Party (NAP) won 24 seats in the National Congress. On September 19, 1994, the UN General Assembly established the United Nations Mission for the Verification of Human Rights in Guatemala (MINUGUA) to monitor human rights conditions and civilian police.  MINUGUA-human rights/civilian police observation mission consisted of 200 human rights monitors and 60 civilian police observers.  Government troops killed ten Guatemalan refugees returning to their country on October 5, 1995. The US Committee for Refugees (USCR) condemned the Guatemalan government for the killings on October 6, 1995. Congressional elections were held on November 12, 1995, and the NAP won 43 out of 80 seats in the National Congress. Alvaro Enrique Arzu of the NAP was elected president on January 7, 1996. The OAS sent 60 observers to monitor the election process from October 15, 1995 to January 15, 1996. The European Union (EU) sent 44 observers to monitor the elections. Switzerland sent nine observers to monitor the pre-election process from October 26 to November 7, 1995. The Swiss mission issued a report on November 6, 1995, which suggested that there were some serious problems that were "major obstacles to full democratic participation." Alvaro Enrique Arzu was inaugurated as president on January 14, 1996. President Enrique Arzu and URNG representatives signed a interim ceasefire agreement in Mexico City on March 20, 1996, and the parties signed a permanent ceasefire agreement in Olso, Norway on December 4, 1996. Some 140,000 individuals were killed and some one million individuals were displaced during the conflict.

(239-1308) Post-Conflict Phase (December 5, 1996-May 27, 1997): The government and FAR rebels signed the Agreement on a Firm and Lasting Peace mediated by the UN in Guatemala City on December 29, 1996. On January 20, 1997, the UN Security Council established the United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala (MINUGUA-military observation mission) to monitor the ceasefire agreement and the demobilization of the rebels.  MUNUGUA-military observation mission consisted of 132 military observers and 13 medical personnel from 16 countries commanded by Brig. General Jose Rodriguez from Spain.  Jean Arnault of France served as special representative of the UN secretary-general in Guatemala between March 1, 1997 and July 31, 2000. Some 1,928 rebels were demobilized, and MINUGUA-military observation mission was disbanded on May 27, 1997.

(239-1309) Post-Crisis Phase (May 28, 1997-present): The OAS provided de-mining assistance to the government beginning in 1998.  The UN/Guatemalan truth commission issued their final report on February 25, 1999.  A referendum on constitutional amendments was held on May 16, 1999, and voters rejected the constitutional amendments. The OAS sent 28 observers from 13 countries headed by Edgardo Reis to monitor the referendum from April 29 to May 17, 1999. The UNHCR disbanded its mission in June 1999. Congressional elections were held on November 7, 1999, and the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) won 64 out of 110 seats in the National Congress. The National Advancement Party (Partido de Avanzada Nacional - PAN) won 37 seats in the National Congress. Japan sent six observers to monitor the elections from November 3-10, 1999. The OAS sent 77 observers from 17 countries headed by Edgardo Reis to monitor the congressional elections from October 5 to December 27, 1999. Alfonso Portillo of the FRG was elected president with 68 percent of the vote in the run-off election on December 26, 1999. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Gerd Merrem as special representative in Guatemala (and head of MINUGUA) on August 1, 2000.  Oscar Berger Perdomo of the Grand National Alliance (Gran Alianza Nacional - GAN) was elected president with 54 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections held on December 28, 2003.  Parliamentary elections were held on November 9, 2003, and the GAN won 47 out of 158 seats in the National Congress.  The FRG won 43 seats in the National Congress.  The EU sent six election experts, 22 long-term observers, and 60 short-term observers headed by Jannis Sakellariou of Germany to monitor the elections from September 25, 2003 to January 15, 2004.  The Carter Center (CC) sent observers to monitor the elections from October 20 to December 30, 2003.  The OAS sent observers headed by Valentin Paniagua of Peru to monitor the elections from July 10 to November 10, 2003.  The OAS ended de-mining assistance to the government on December 15, 2005.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), December 29, 1996, December 30, 1996, November 7, 1999, November 9, 1999, November 10, 1999, December 27, 1999; Banks and Muller, 1998, 370-377; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 722-727; Beigbeder, 1994, 232, 234; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 77-78; Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 343-345; Brogan, 1992, 460-471; Butterworth, 1976, 331-333; Carter Center (CC) press release, November 3, 2003, December 19, 2003, December 30, 2003; Clodfelter, 1992, 1158-1160; Degenhardt, 1988, 138-142; Donelan and Grieve, 1973, 94-98; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1339-1340; European Union (EU) press release, January 12, 1996; Facts on File, November 10-16, 1950, July 13-19, 1951, July 2-8, 1954, July 9-15, 1954, January 20-26, 1955, January 27-February 2, 1955, June 20-26, 1956, July 25-31, 1957, October 17-23, 1957, October 24-30, 1957, January 16-22, 1958, February 13-19, 1958, March 6-12, 1958, January 25-31, 1962, February 22-28, 1962, March 15-21, 1962, November 22-28, 1962, March 28-April 3, 1963, March 17-23, 1966, June 2-8, 1966, July 28-August 3, 1966, August 1-7, 1968, February 26-March 4, 1970, July 2-8, 1970, November 12-18, 1970, December 16-22, 1971, March 17, 1978; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1920, 718-755, 1921, 178-187, 1921, 178-187, 1922, 458-460; Gott, 1971, 39-118; Hispanic American Report (HAR), March 1951, July 1951, June 1952, January 1953, April 1953, May 1954, June 1954, July 1954, August 1954, October 1954, November 1954, January 1955, June 1955, December 1955, January 1956, March 1956, June 1956, July 1956, August 1956, July 1957, August 1957, October 1957, January 1958, February 1958, March 1958, March 1963; Jenkins and Sereseres, 1977, 575-594; Jessup, 1998, 255-258; Keesing's Record of World Events, January 20-27, 1951, August 3-10, 1957, September 14-21, 1957, November 9-16, 1957, April 12-19, 1958, December 3-10, 1960, April 20-27, 1963, July 9-16, 1966, April 4-11, 1970, March 18-24, 1974, June 9, 1978, October 2, 1981, July 23, 1982, June 1983, November 1983, April 1986, November 1990, December 1990, May 1993, June 1993, August 1994, November 1999; Kyodo News Service (KNS), October 26, 1999; Langer, 1972, 1069, 1244-1245; Munro, 1964, 457-468; Munro, 1974, 281-282; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, December 23, 1999, December 27, 1999, December 12, 2005; Radu and Tismaneanu, 1990, 235-274; Reuters, May 17, 1999, November 7, 1999, November 11, 1999; Robertson, 1943, 430-433; Schooley, 1987, 17-31; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1930, 564; Tillema, 1991, 33-34; United Nations Secretary-General press release, August 2, 2000; US Committee for Refugees (USCR) press release, October 6, 1995; Weisburd, 1997, 209-211.]

(240-1311) Conflict Phase (January 2, 1904-September 24, 1904): Timoteo Aparicio Saravia led a Conservative (Blancos) rebellion against the government beginning on January 2, 1904. Some 6,500 government troops commanded by Colonel Pablo Galarza defeated 5,000 rebels at Tupambae on June 22-24, 1904. Timoteo Apartico Saravia was killed during a battle with government troops near Masoller on September 1, 1904.  The parties signed the Treaty of Acegua on September 24, 1904. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(240-1312) Post-Conflict Phase (September 25, 1904-March 1, 1919): Claudio Williman of the CP was elected president by the Congress in 1906, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1907. The government suppressed a Conservative rebellion in 1910. Jose Batlle Ordonez was elected president by the Congress in 1910, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1911. Feliciano Viera of the CP was elected president by the Congress in 1914, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1915. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on July 30, 1916. A new constitution was approved on October 17, 1917, and the constitution went into effect on March 1, 1919. The constitution provided for the direct, popular vote for president, and created a nine-member Administrative Council to share executive powers with the president. Baltasar Brum of the CP was elected president by the Congress in 1918, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1919.

(240-1313) Post-Crisis Phase (March 2, 1919-March 12, 1933): Gabriel Terra of the Battlista faction of the Colorado Party (CP) was elected president, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1931.

(240-1314) Crisis Phase (March 13, 1933-March 1, 1943): President Terra mobilized the military against the Congress and Administrative Council on March 13, 1933. President Terra dissolved Congress and the Administrative Council on March 31, 1933. The Constituent Assembly was convened in March 1934. A new constitution, which abolished the Administrative Council, was approved in a referendum on April 20, 1934. Several political parties had boycotted the referendum. The government suppressed a rebellion by members of the CP and Independent Nationalists (IN) in January 1935. General Alfredo Baldomir was elected president by the Congress in 1937, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1938. The government arrested 12 Nazi leaders on June 17, 1940, but the individuals were released after the intervention of the German embassy. President Baldomir dissolved Congress, and took control of the government on February 21, 1942. President Baldomir appointed a Council of State to draft constitutional reforms on February 23, 1942. Juan Jose Amezago of the liberal faction of the CP was elected president on November 29, 1942, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1943. The Council of State was dissolved on February 12, 1943, and the Congress was convened on February 15, 1943. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(240-1315) Post-Crisis Phase (March 2, 1943-June 12, 1968): Tomas Berreta of the CP was elected president on November 24, 1946, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1947. President Berreta died on August 2, 1947, and Vice-President Luis Batlle Berres of the CP assumed the presidency on August 3, 1947. Andres Martinez Trueba of the CP was elected president on November 26, 1950, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1951. An amendment to the constitution was approved in a referendum in December 1951, which transferred executive power from the president to a nine-member National Council of Government (Consejo Nacional de Gobierno - CNG). The CNG headed by Andres Martinez Trueba assumed control of the government on March 1, 1952. Luis Conrado Batlle Berres of the CP took over the chairmanship of the CNG on March 1, 1955. Martin Recaredo Echegoyen Machicote of the National Party (NP) took over the chairmanship of the CNG on March 1, 1959. The Movement for National Liberation (Movimiento de Liberacion Nacional - MLN) was established in opposition to the government in 1962. Daniel Fernandez Crespo of the National Party (NP) was elected president in November 1962, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1963. General Oscar Diego Gestido of the Union Colorada y Battlista (UCB) was elected president on November 27, 1966, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1967. President Gestido died on December 6, 1967, and Vice-President Jorge Pacheco Areco assumed the presidency on December 7, 1967.

(240-1316) Crisis Phase (June 13, 1968-April 14, 1972): The government declared a state-of-emergency on June 13, 1968. The Uruguayan Revolutionary Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias Orientales - FARO) was established in opposition to the government in 1969. Cuba provided military assistance to FARO. One individual was killed during riots in Montevideo on January 21, 1969. The government lifted the state-of-emergency on March 15, 1969. MLN rebels attacked the naval base in La Paloma on April 28, 1969. On June 24, 1969, the government declared a limited state-of-siege following more than two months of labor unrest. MLN rebels killed one policeman in Montevideo on July 7, 1969. MLN rebels captured Pando on October 8, 1969. Ambassador Geoffrey Jackson of Britain was kidnapped and held from January 8 to September 9, 1971. The government and MLN rebels agreed to a cessation of military hostilities in October 1971. Parliamentary elections were held on November 28, 1971, and the Colorado Party (Partido Colorado - PC) won 41 out of 99 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The National Party (Partido Nacional - PN) won 40 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Juan Maria Bordaberry Arocena of the PC was elected president on November 28, 1971, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1972.

(240-1317) Conflict Phase (April 15, 1972-July 11, 1972): Congress declared a 30-day "state of internal war" on April 15, 1972. Some 35,000 military and police personnel were deployed against the MLN rebels beginning on April 15, 1972. The government lifted the "state of internal war" on July 11, 1972. Some 300 rebels and 50 government soldiers were killed during the conflict.

(240-1318) Post-Conflict Phase (July 12, 1972-August 3, 1984): President Bordaberry and the military signed the Boisso Lanza Pact on February 12, 1973, and the military-dominated National Security Council (Consejo de Seguridad Nacional - COSENA) was established on February 13, 1973. The President Bordaberry dissolved the Chamber of Deputies on June 27, 1973, and established the 25-member Council of State on June 30, 1973. The military occupied Montevideo on July 1, 1973. On August 11, 1973, the National Confederation of Workers (Confederacion Nacional de Trabajadores - CNT) was abolished by the government after the group called for a general strike. Some 400,000 Uruguayans fled as refugees to neighboring countries. President Bordaberry was overthrown by the military on June 12, 1976, and Vice-President Alberto Demicheli was appointed as provisional president. Some 105 individuals fled as refugees to Mexico City between June 24 and July 2, 1976. Aparico Mendez was appointed as president by the Council of the Nation (25 civilians and 21 military officers) on July 14, 1976, and he was inaugurated as president on September 1, 1976. The International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) condemned the government for human rights abuses on July 16, 1976. The US imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government in September 1976. A new constitution was rejected in a referendum on November 30, 1980. Lt. General Gregorio Alvarez Armelino was sworn in as transitional president on September 1, 1981. The government banned political party activity on August 2, 1983. Some 25,000 individuals demonstrated against the government in Montevideo on September 25, 1983, and 300,000 individuals demonstrated against the government on November 27, 1983. The military and several political groups, known as the Multipartidaria, signed a pact on August 3, 1984, which provided for presidential and congressional elections. Some 200 individuals were killed, and some 400,000 individuals were displaced as a result of political violence between July 1972 and August 1984.

(240-1319) Post-Crisis Phase (August 4, 1984-present): Congressional elections were held on November 25, 1984, and the PC won 41 out of 99 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Julio Maria Sanguinetti Cairolo of the PC was elected president on November 25, 1984, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1985. Congressional elections were held on November 26, 1989. Luis Alberto Lacalle Herrera of the PN was elected president with 37 percent of the vote on November 26, 1989, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 1990. Julio Sanguinetti Cairolo of the PC was elected president with 31 percent of the vote on November 27, 1994. Jorge Battle of the PC was elected president with 52 percent of the vote on November 23, 1999.  Tabare Vazquez of the Broad Front/Progressive Encounter/New Majority (Frente Amplio/Encuentro Progresista/Nueva Mayoria - FA/EP/NM) was elected president with 52 percent of the vote on October 31, 2004, and he was inaugurated as president on March 1, 2005.  Parliamentary elections were held on October 31, 2004, and the FA/EP/NM won 52 out of 99 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The PN won 36 seats, and the PC won 10 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.

[Sources: Banks and Muller, 1998, 995-1000; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 560-580; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), October 30, 2004, October 31, 2004, November 1, 2004; Clodfelter, 1992, 696, 1185; Degenhardt, 1988, 408; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1344; Facts on File, November 24-30, 1950, February 13-19, 1969, July 3-9, 1969, December 2-8, 1971, January 29-February 5, 1972, March 5-11, 1972, March 12-18, 1972, April 16-22, 1972, July 16-22, 1972, February 11-17, 1973, July 1-7, 1973, June 19, 1976, July 24, 1976, September 11, 1976; Jessup, 1998, 778-780; Keesing's Record of World Events, January 29-February 5, 1972, March 18-25, 1972, August 5-12, 1972, July 16-22, 1973, August 27, 1976, October 29, 1976, February 25, 1977, March 6, 1981, December 4, 1981, January 1984, November 1989, November 1999; Langer, 1972, 1062, 1255; Munro, 1961, 197-211; New York Times (NYT), March 1, 2005; Radu and Tismaneanu, 1990, 347-355; Robertson, 1943, 238-250; Weinstein, 1988.]

(241-1321) Post-Crisis Phase (January 1, 1905-October 11, 1925): Municipal elections were held on June 24, 1906. Parliamentary elections were held in 1906, and the CP won 25 out of 28 seats in the National Assembly. Jose Domingo Obaldia of the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal - PL) was elected president in July 1908, and he was inaugurated as president on October 1, 1908. Herbert Squires and 200 US personnel supervised the presidential elections. President Obaldia died in March 1910, and Carlos Mendoza was appointed as provisional president. Parliamentary elections were held in July 1910. President Mendoza resigned in August 1910, and Pablo Arosemena was elected as provisional president by the National Assembly on September 14, 1910. On May 4, 1912, President Pablo Arosemena requested US supervision of presidential and municipal elections. The US agreed to supervise the elections on May 13, 1912, and some 215 US personnel were sent to supervise the municipal and presidential elections. Municipal elections were held on June 30, 1912. Pedro Diaz of the Patriotic Union (Union Patriotica - UP) withdrew from the presidential election on July 12, 1912. Belisario Porras of the PL was elected president on July 14, 1912. Belisario Porras was inaugurated as president on October 2, 1912. US troops withdrew from the country on January 21, 1914. Colombia and the US signed the Thomson-Urrutia Treaty on April 6, 1914, which provided for Colombian recognition of Panamanian independence. The Panama Canal was opened on August 15, 1914. Ramon Valdes of the PL was elected president on June 30, 1916. Opposition political parties had boycotted the presidential election. President Valdes died on June 3, 1918, and Belisario Porras was appointed as provisional president on June 4, 1918. Municipal elections were held on June 30, 1918. Belisario Porras of the PL was elected president in August 1920. Colombia formally recognized the independence of Panama on March 1, 1922, when ratifications of the Thomson-Urrutia Treaty were exchanged in Bogota. Rudolfo Chiari of the PL was elected president in September 1924.

(241-1322) Crisis Phase (October 12, 1925-October 1, 1932): On October 12-23, 1925, US peacekeeping troops were deployed to maintain order after a request by the Panamanian government. Florencio Hermodio Arosemena of the PL was elected president on August 5, 1928. Opposition political parties had boycotted the presidential election. President Arosemena was overthrown on January 2, 1931, and a military junta headed by Hermodio Arias took control of the government on January 3, 1931. Hermodio Arias was elected president in June 1932, and he was inaugurated as president on October 1, 1932.

(241-1323) Post-Crisis Phase (October 2, 1932-October 8, 1941): Juan Demostenes Arosemena was elected president in 1936. Arnulfo Arias Madrid was elected president in June 1940.

(241-1324) Crisis Phase (October 9, 1941-October 2, 1948): President Arias Madrid was overthrown on October 9, 1941, and Ricardo Adolfo de la Guardia as elected president in October 1941. President de la Gaurdia dissolved the National Assembly on December 31, 1944. The government suppressed a rebellion in March 1945. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held in May 1945. President de la Gaurdia resigned in June 1945, and the Constituent Assembly appointed Enrique Jimenez as provisional president. Supporters of former President Arias Madrid rebelled against the government in Colon in December 1945, resulting in the deaths of six individuals. Domingo Diaz Arosemena of the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal - PL) was elected president on May 9, 1948. Three individuals were killed in political violence on July 3, 1948. The government declared a state-of-siege on July 4, 1948. President Jimenez was impeach by the Congress on July 12, 1948, and Enrique Obarrio was appointed as provisional president on July 13, 1948. The Supreme Court ruled the impeachment unconstitutional on July 14, 1948. Domingo Diaz Arosemena was inaugurated as president on October 1, 1948, and the government lifted the state-of-siege on October 2, 1948. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(241-1326) Crisis Phase (April 1, 1949-December 15, 1969): The government suppressed a rebellion in April 1949, and declared a state-of-siege. President Diaz Arosemena died on August 23, 1949, and Daniel Chanis was appointed as provisional president. President Chanis resigned as a result of pressure by Colonel Jose Remon on November 20, 1949, and Vice President Roberto Chiari became president on November 21, 1949. Arnulfo Arias Madrid was installed as president on November 25, 1949. Three individuals were killed in political violence in Panama City on November 22-26, 1949. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of President Arias Madrid on November 25, 1949. Cuba provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Arias Madrid on December 2, 1949. The US lifted diplomatic sanctions against the government on December 14, 1949. President Arias Madrid dissolved the National Assembly and suspended the 1946 constitution on May 7, 1951. Sixteen individuals were killed in political violence in Panama City on May 9-10, 1951. President Arias Madrid was impeached and replaced by Vice-President Alicibiades Arosemena by the National Assembly on May 10, 1951. Colonel Jose Antonio Remon was elected as president on May 11, 1952, and he was inaugurated as president on October 1, 1952. President Remon and two other individuals were killed in Panama City on January 2, 1955, and Vice-President Jose Ramon Guizado was appointed as provisional president on January 3, 1955. President Ramon Guizado was impeached by the National Assembly for his involvement in the assassination of President Remon on January 15, 1955. Vice-President Ricardo Arias Espinosa was sworn in as provisional president on January 15, 1955. Parliamentary elections were held on May 13, 1956, and the National Patriotic Coalition (Coalicion Patriotica Nacional - CPN) won 42 seats in the National Assembly. The PL won 11 seats in the National Assembly. Ernesto de la Guardia of the CPN was elected president on May 13, 1956, and he was inaugurated as president on October 1, 1956. Victor Goytia, president candidate of the PL, claimed election fraud. Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Panama City on May 19-25, 1958, resulting in the deaths of eight individuals. Government troops suppressed an exile invasion near Mandinga Bay on April 26-May 1, 1959. Panama referred the matter to the Organization of American States (OAS) Council on April 27, 1959, and the OAS Council established a commission of inquiry (Brazil, Costa Rico, Paraguay, and the US ) headed by Fernando Lobo of Brazil on April 28, 1959. The OAS commission of inquiry investigated the matter in Panama from April 29 to May 4, 1959. Roberto Chiari of the PL was elected president on May 8, 1960. Marco Robles of the National Opposition Union (NOU) was elected president on March 10, 1964, and he was inaugurated on October 1, 1964.  The US deployed naval ships in the area between May 7, 1964 and May 20, 1964.  Three individuals were killed in political violence in Colon and Panama City on June 1-12, 1966. President Robles was impeached by the National Assembly on March 24, 1968. Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Panama City on March 24-29, 1968, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. Arnulfo Arias Madrid was elected president on May 12, 1968, and he was inaugurated as president on October 1, 1968. Two individuals were killed in election-related violence. President Arias Madrid was deposed in a military coup led by Colonel Omar Torrijos Herrera on October 11-12, 1968, and a provisional military junta headed by Colonel Jose Maria Pinilla took control of the government on October 13, 1968. Two government soldiers were killed in political violence in Panama City on October 13, 1968. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the military junta on October 15, 1968, but lifted the diplomatic sanctions against the military junta on November 13, 1968. The military junta declared all political parties illegal in February 1969. Colonel Omar Torrijos Herrera overthrew the military junta headed by Colonel Pinella on December 15, 1969. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(241-1327) Post-Crisis Phase (December 16, 1969-June 9, 1987): Parliamentary elections were held on August 2, 1972. Parliamentary elections were held on August 6, 1978. The Organization of American States (OAS) sent three observers to monitor the parliamentary elections. The National Assembly elected Aristides Royo as president on October 11, 1978. General Torrijos Herrera, commander of the National Guard, died in a plane crash on August 1, 1981. President Royo resigned in July 1982. Colonel Manuel Antonio Noriega, the commander of the Panama Defence Forces (PDF), assumed control of the government in March 1983. Eric Arturo Delvalle became president in 1985.

(241-1328) Crisis Phase (June 10, 1987-June 10, 1987): The government imposed a state-of-emergency on June 10-29, 1987.  General Noriega was indicted by a federal grand jury in Miami for drug trafficking on February 4, 1988.  President Delvalle fired General Noriega as commander of PDF on February 25, 1988, but General Noriega responded by deposing President Delvalle.  The US imposed economic sanctions against the government on March 11, 1988. General Noriega suppressed a military rebellion in March 1988. Libya provided $24 million in economic assistance to the government in April 1988. Guillermo Endara Gallimany of the Democratic Civic Opposition Alliance (Alianza Democratica de Oposicion Civilista - ADOC) was elected president on May 7, 1989. The National Democratic Institute (NDI) and the International Republican Institute (IRI) sent 21 observers to jointly observe the presidential election. General Noriega nullified the results of the presidential election on May 10, 1989. The US condemned the nullification of the presidential election, and deployed 1,900 additional troops in the Panama Canal zone on May 11, 1989. OAS foreign ministers condemned Noriega on May 17, 1989, and authorized the establishment of a four-member conciliation commission (Ecuador, Guatemala, Trinidad & Tobago) chaired by the OAS secretary-general. The OAS conciliation commission issued a report on August 23, 1989. Nine government military personnel were killed following a military coup attempt on October 3, 1989. The National Assembly adopted a resolution on December 15, 1989, which proclaimed General Noriega as the head of state and declared Panama to be in a state of war with the US. Government troops killed a US soldier on December 16, 1989. Some 24,000 US troops intervened against the government of General Noreiga, and overthrew the government of General Noriega on December 20, 1989. Guillermo Endara was sworn in as president on December 20, 1989. The US lifted economic sanctions against the government on December 21, 1989. Nicaragua referred the matter to the United Nations (UN) Security Council on December 21, 1989. The OAS Council appealed for a ceasefire on December 22, 1989. General Noriega surrendered to US troops on January 10, 1990. US troops completed their withdrawal from the country on February 24, 1990. Some 500 individuals, including 65 Panamanian government soldiers and 25 US soldiers, were killed during the crisis.

(241-1329) Post-Crisis Phase (February 25, 1990-present): Local and municipal elections were held on January 27, 1991. The Organization of American States (OAS) sent observers to monitor the elections. A referendum on constitutional reform was held on November 15, 1992. The OAS sent 40 observers to monitor the referendum from November 13, 1992 to November 16, 1992. Parliamentary elections were held on May 8, 1994, and the Democratic Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Democratico - PRD) won 31 out of 72 seats in the National Assembly.  Ernesto Perez Ballasares of the PRD was elected president with a plurality of 33 percent of the vote on May 8, 1994, and he was inaugurated as president on September 1, 1994. The OAS sent 27 observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections from May 1 to May 14, 1994.  A proposed constitutional amendment allowing the president to run for re-election was defeated by a margin of 34 percent to 64 percent on August 30, 1998.  The International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) sent nine observers headed by Jack Hood of the US to monitor the referendum.  The OAS sent 15 observers to monitor the referendum.  Mireya Moscoso of the Union for Panama (UFP) was elected president with 45 percent of the vote on May 2, 1999.  Martin Torrijos of the PRD and Popular Party (PP) coalition was elected president with 47 percent of the vote on May 2, 2004.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 2, 2004, and the PRD won 41 out of 78 seats in the National Assembly.  Some 77 percent of Panamanians voted in support of expanded the Panama Canal in a referendum held on October 22, 2006.  The OAS sent 50 observers to monitor the referendum from October 18 to October 23, 2006.

[Sources: Banks and Muller, 1998, 709-714; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 741-745; Beigbeder, 1994, 232, 235, 280; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), May 2, 1999, May 3, 1999; Brogan, 1992, 496-501; Clodfelter, 1992, 1180-1181; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1340; Facts on File, May 23-29, 1948, July 11-17, 1948, September 26-October 2, 1948, November 20-26, 1949, May 11-17, 1951, May 9-15, 1952, January 1-5, 1955, January 6-12, 1955, January 13-19, 1955, May 22-28, 1958, June 16-22, 1966, March 28-April 3, 1968, October 17-23, 1968; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1912, 1133-1167; Hispanic American Report (HAR), April 1949, August 1949, November 1949, December 1949, May 1951, May 1952, October 1952, May 1956, June 1956, October 1956; International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) press release, August 25, 1998, August 31, 1998; Jessup, 1998, 563-565; Keesing's Record of World Events, October 30-November 6, 1948, December 24-31, 1949, August 18-25, 1951, August 16-23, 1952, May 16-23, 1959, June 4-11, 1960, December 21-31, 1968, November 24, 1978, May 1989, December 1989, September 1994; Langer, 1972, 1067-1068, 1242-1243; Miller, 633-646; Munro, 1961, 391-403; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, August 19, 1998, October 11, 2006, October 19, 2006, October 22, 2006; Robertson, 1943, 443-450; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1925 (supplement), 201; Weisburd, 1997, 238-240; Wright, 1964, 23-34.]

(242-1331) Conflict Phase (July 1, 1911-May 11, 1912): Government troops and Liberal rebels led by former President Gondra engaged in military hostilities between July 1911 and May 11, 1912. Some 2,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(242-1332) Post-Conflict Phase (May 12, 1912-August 15, 1924): Eduardo Schaerer was elected president in 1912, and he was inaugurated as president on August 15, 1912. Manuel Franco of the liberal faction of the CP was elected president in August 1916. President Franco died in 1919, and Vice-President Jose Montero was appointed as provisional president. Manuel Gondra was elected president in 1920. President Gondra was forced to resign on October 29, 1921, and Eusebio Ayala was appointed as provisional president on October 30, 1921. President Eusebio Ayala resigned on April 11, 1923, and Eligio Ayala was elected president on August 15, 1924.

(242-1333) Pre-Crisis Phase (August 16, 1924-September 11, 1929): Jose Patricio Guggiari was elected president in 1928.

(242-1334) Crisis Phase (September 12, 1929-August 15, 1932): On September 12, 1929, President Guggiari declared martial law after several weeks of civil unrest in Asuncion. President Guggiari resigned on October 26, 1931, and Vice-President Emiliano Gonzalez Novero was sworn in as president on October 27, 1931. President Guggiari resumed the presidency on January 26, 1932. Eusebio Ayala, leader of the Liberal faction of the Colorado Party (CP), was elected president in 1932, and he was inaugurated as president on August 15, 1932.

(242-1335) Post-Crisis Phase (August 16, 1932-February 16, 1936): Communists and other left-wing groups established the National Front (NF) in opposition to the government in 1936.

(242-1336) Crisis Phase (February 17, 1936-March 6, 1947): President Eusebio Ayala was deposed during a military rebellion on February 17, 1936, and Colonel Rafael Franco of the NF became provisional president on February 24, 1936. The government suppressed a Liberal rebellion led by Eusebio Ayala in May 1936. President Franco was overthrown in a military rebellion on August 14, 1937, and Felix Pavia of the CP became provisional president on August 16, 1937. The government suppressed NF rebellions on September 7-8 and November 2-3, 1937. General Jose Felix Estigarribia of the CP was elected president on April 30, 1939, and he was inaugurated as president on August 15, 1939. The National Republican (NR) faction of the CP had boycotted the presidential election. President Estigarribia dissolved Congress and assumed emergency powers on February 18, 1940. A new constitution was approved in a referendum on August 4, 1940. President Estigarribia and his wife were killed in a plane crash on September 7, 1940. General Higinio Morinigo, the minister of war, was appointed as provisional president on September 8, 1940. General Morinigo assumed full control of the government on November 30, 1940. Some 800 Liberals were arrested and imprisoned on December 25, 1940. The government suppressed left-wing rebellions on April 18 and July 4, 1941. General Morinigo dissolved the CP in April 1942, and Eusebio Ayala died in exile in Buenos Aires on June 4, 1942. General Morinigo was elected president without opposition on February 14, 1943, and he was inaugurated as president for a five-year term on August 15, 1943. The government suppressed a rebellion in January 1944. President Morinigo lifted the ban on political parties on July 26, 1946. Communist and CP supporters clashed in Asuncion in September 1946, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. President Moringo declared a state-of-siege on January 13, 1947, and outlawed the communist party on January 15, 1947. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(242-1337) Conflict Phase (March 7, 1947-August 20, 1947): Colonel Rafael Franco led a communist (Febrerista) rebellion against the government in Concepcion beginning on March 7, 1947. Brazil offered to mediate negotiations between the parties on April 22, 1947, but the mediation offer was rejected by both parties. Government troops recaptured Concepcion on July 31, 1947. The US offered to mediate negotiations between the parties on August 14, 1947. Government troops suppressed the communist rebellion on August 20, 1947. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(242-1338) Post-Conflict Phase (August 21, 1947-August 15, 1963): Juan Natalicio Gonzalez of the CP was elected president without opposition on February 15, 1948, and he was inaugurated as president on August 15, 1948. The government suppressed a military rebellion in October 1948. President Gonzalez was overthrown on January 30, 1949, and General Raimundo Rolon was elected provisional president by the National Assembly on January 31, 1949. General Rolon was overthrown on February 26, 1949, and Felipe Molas Lopez of the CP was appointed as provisional president on February 27, 1949. Brazil provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the provisional government on April 11, 1949, and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the provisional government on April 13, 1949. Felipe Molas Lopez was elected president without opposition on April 17, 1949, and he was inaugurated as president on May 14, 1949. Federico Chavez of the CP was elected president without opposition on September 12, 1949. President Chavez was re-elected without opposition on February 15, 1953. President Chavez was deposed in a military coup led by General Alfredo Stroessner on May 5-6, 1954, resulting in the deaths of some 30 individuals. The National Assembly elected Romero Pereira as provisional president on May 8, 1954. General Stroessner, representing the National Republican Association-Colorado Party (ARN-PC), was elected president on July 11, 1954. Epifanio Mendez Fleitas led a rebellion against the government in December 1955. President Stroessner was re-elected for a five-year term in a plebiscite on February 9, 1958. Father Ramon Talavera of Asuncion criticized the government on February 22 and March 10, 1958. Archbishop Mena Porta criticized the government on March 23, 1958. Lt. Corazon Chamorro led an unsuccessful military rebellion (Febreristas) against the government near Coronel Bogado on April 1, 1958, resulting in the deaths of several individuals. The government lifted the state-of-siege on April 28, 1959, but the government declared a state-of-siege on May 31, 1959. Major Juan Jose Rotela led a rebellion of some 1,000 soldiers against the government beginning on December 12, 1959, but government troops suppressed the rebellion in August 1960. Parliamentary elections were held on May 13, 1960, and the ARN-CP won 60 out of 60 seats in the Congress. Government troops suppressed a rebellion near Asuncion on December 21, 1960. The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government beginning on August 25, 1962 (additional military assistance agreements were signed on February 10, 1964 and April 11, 1966). General Stroessner was re-elected as president on February 10, 1963, and he was inaugurated as president on August 15, 1963. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in political violence between August 1947 and August 1963.

(242-1339) Post-Crisis Phase (August 16, 1963-September 4, 1967): Opposition political parties boycotted the presidential election. A new constitution providing for a bicameral parliament went into effect on August 25, 1967.

(242-1340) Crisis Phase (September 5, 1967-April 8, 1987): The government declared a state-of-siege on September 5, 1967. Parliamentary elections were held on February 11, 1968, and the ARN-PC won 40 out of 60 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. General Stroessner was re-elected as president on February 11, 1968. Father Francisco de Paula Oliva, a professor as the Catholic University in Asuncion, was arrested on October 22, 1969. Monsenor Ismael Blas Rolon was appointed as archbishop of Asuncion on January 27, 1970. Some 900 Ache Indians were massacred between 1962 and 1972. General Stroessner was re-elected as president on February 11, 1973. Government troops fired on peasants near the village of Jejui on February 8, 1975, resulting in the deaths of eight individuals. General Stroessner was re-elected as president with 90 percent of the vote on February 12, 1978, and he was inaugurated for a sixth term as president on August 15, 1978. General Stroessner was re-elected as president with 90 percent of the vote on February 6, 1983, and he was inaugurated for a seventh term as president on August 15, 1983. Some 2,000 individuals demonstrated against the government in Asuncion on February 17, 1984. Some 15,000 individuals demonstrated against the government in Asuncion on February 14, 1986. Archbishop Ismael Rolon Silvero of Asuncion urged Roman Catholics to support anti-government demonstrations on May 28, 1986. The government lifted the state-of-siege on April 8, 1987. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in political violence between September 1967 and April 1987.

(242-1341) Post-Crisis Phase (April 9, 1987-February 1, 1989): General Stroessner was re-elected as president with 89 percent of the vote on February 14, 1988, and he was inaugurated for an eighth term as president on August 15, 1988. Some 50,000 individuals demonstrated against the government in Asuncion on August 6, 1988.

(242-1342) Crisis Phase (February 2, 1989-May 15, 1989): General Stroessner was deposed in a military coup led by General Andres Rodriguez Pedotti on February 2-3, 1989, resulting in the deaths of some 31 individuals. Parliamentary elections were held on May 1, 1989, and the ANR-PC won 48 out of 72 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. General Rodriquez Pedotti was elected president on May 1, 1989, and he was inaugurated as president on May 15, 1989. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(242-1343) Post-Crisis Phase (May 16, 1989-March 22, 1999): On December 14, 1990, the military government asked the Organization of American States (OAS) to send a mission to monitor municipal elections. Municipal elections were held on May 26, 1991. The OAS sent 47 observers to monitor the election process from March 5 to June 27, 1991. The OAS observation mission issued a report on November 13, 1991. Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held on December 1, 1991, and the ARN-PC won 123 out of 198 seats. The Authentic Radical Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Radical Autentico - PLRA) won 57 seats in the Constituent Assembly. The OAS sent 33 observers to monitor the election process from November 15 to December 7, 1991. The OAS observation mission issued a report on March 10, 1992. The Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution that went into effect on June 22, 1992. The OAS sent four observers on a pre-election observation mission from August 5, 1992 to September 3, 1992. Parliamentary elections were held on May 9, 1993, and the ARN-PC won 36 out of 80 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Juan Carlos Warmosy of the ARN-PC was elected president with 41 percent of the vote on May 9, 1993, and he was inaugurated as president on August 15, 1993. The OAS sent 90 observers to monitor the election process from March 23, 1993 to June 20, 1993. On August 5, 1993, the OAS observation mission reported that the elections were free and fair. The Carter Center/Council of Freely Elected Heads of Government (CC/CFEHG) sent observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections. The parliament approved legislation banning the involvement of the military in political activities on May 28, 1994. General Lino Cesar Oviedo Silva unsuccessfully attempted to force President Carlos Wasmosy to resign in April 1996, and General Oviedo Silva was arrested for insurrection on June 13, 1996. General Ovieda Silva was released from custody by an appeals court on August 7, 1996. Municipal elections were held on November 17, 1996. The International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) sent observers to monitor the municipal elections. Parliamentary elections were held on May 10, 1998, and the National Republican Association-Colorado Party (ARN-PC) won 45 out of 80 seats in the National Assembly. The Democratic Alliance (DA) won 35 seats in the National Assembly. Raul Cubas Grau of the ARN-PC was elected president with 54 percent of the vote. IFES sent six observers to monitor the election process from April to May 1998. The OAS sent 60 observers to monitor the parliamentary elections from March 7 to May 24, 1998.

(242-1344) Crisis Phase (March 23, 1999-July 17, 2002): Vice President Luis Maria Argana was assassinated on March 23, 1999. The OAS Council and President Bill Clinton of the US condemned the assassination on March 24, 1999. Four individuals were killed in political violence in Asuncion on March 26, 1999. President Cubas Grau resigned on March 28, 1999, and Luis Gonzalez Macchi was sworn in as president. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion in Asuncion on May 18-19, 2000. President Gonzalez Macchi declared a 30-day state-of-emergency on May 19, 2000. The US and the OAS Council condemned the military rebellion, and expressed support for President Gonzalez Macchi on May 19, 2000. The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) condemned the military rebellion on May 19, 2000. Vice-presidential elections were held on August 13, 2000. Two individuals were killed in political violence near Ciudad del Este on July 15, 2002. President Gonzalez Macchi imposed a state-of-emergency on July 15, 2002, and he lifted the state-of-emergency on July 17, 2002.

(242-1345)  Post-Crisis Phase (July 18, 2002-present):  Oscar Nicanor of the PC was elected president on April 27, 2003.  Parliamentary elections were held on April 27, 2003, and the ARN-PC won 37 out of 80 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The PLRA won 21 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The OAS sent 14 observers to monitor the elections from April 23 to April 28, 2003.  The International Federation for Election Systems (IFES) sent 24 observers headed by Miguel Angel Rodriguez of Costa Rica to monitor the elections.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), May 19, 2000, May 20, 2000; Banks and Muller, 1998, 719-722; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 581-598; Beigbeder, 1994, 37, 232; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), July 17, 2002, December 5, 2002; Clodfelter, 1992, 1181-1182; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1343; Facts on File, January 12-18, 1947, March 2-8, 1947,March 9-15, 1947, August 10-16, 1947, August 17-23, 1947, February 15-21, 1948, May 30-June 5, 1948, January 30-February 5, 1949, February 20-26, 1949, May 1-7, 1949, February 6-12, 1958, December 17-23, 1959, December 22-28, 1960, March 14-20, 1968, May 26, 1978; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1908, 760-769; Hispanic American Report (HAR), May 1954, March 1956, April 1958, May 1959, December 1959, August 1960; International Federation for Election Systems (IFES) press release, April 28, 2003; Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) press release, May 19, 2000; Jessup, 1998, 569-571; Keesing's Record of World Events, September 20-27, 1947, February 5-12, 1949, May 28-June 4, 1949, June 5-12, 1954, May 16-23, 1959, March 9-16, 1963, August 24-31, 1963, March 30-April 6, 1968, March 12-18, 1973, April 14-20, 1975, May 12, 1978, October 13, 1978, June 1983, March 1985, June 1986, June 1987, May 1988, February 1989, May 1989, December 1991, May 1993, August 1993, May 1998, March 1999; Langer, 1972, 1061-1062, 1254-1255; Lewis 1980; Miranda 1990; Munro, 1961, 212-223; New York Times (NYT), May 2, 1989, July 18, 2002, April 28, 2003; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, May 19, 2000, April 23, 2003, May 7, 2003; Reuters, March 24, 1999, March 25, 1999, May 19, 2000, July 15, 2002, July 16, 2002, July 17, 2002, April 27, 2003, April 28, 2003; Robertson, 1943, 251-267; Scheina, 2003, 185-188; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1936, 955, 1937, 623; Warren 1949.]

(243-1352) Post-Crisis Phase (March 30, 1966-February 14, 1972): Clemente Yerovi Indaburu was appointed as provisional president on March 30, 1966, and he formed a civilian government on April 5, 1966. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on October 16, 1966. The Constituent Assembly elected Otto Arosemena Gomez as provisional president on November 17, 1966. The Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution on May 25, 1967. Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra was elected president on June 2, 1968, and he was inaugurated as president on September 1, 1968. The Organization of American States (OAS) sent three observers to monitor the presidential election from May 27 to June 12, 1968. The OAS mission issued a report on July 4, 1968.  On June 22, 1970, President Velasco Ibarra assumed emergency powers following months of student unrest in Quito and Guayaquil. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion by 250 government soldiers in Quito on March 31, 1971.

(243-1353) Crisis Phase (February 15, 1972-January 15, 1976):  President Velasco Ibarra was deposed in a military coup led by General Guillermo Rodriguez Lara on February 15, 1972.  General Rodriguez Lara proclaimed himself head-of-state on February 17, 1972. Government troops suppressed a right-wing military rebellion led by General Raul Gonzales Alvear on September 1, 1975, resulting in the deaths of some 22 individuals. A three-member military junta headed by Vice Admiral Alfredo Poveda Burbano took control of the government and imposed a state-of-siege on January 11, 1976. The military junta lifted the state-of-siege on January 15, 1976. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(243-1354)  Post-Crisis Phase (January 16, 1976-June 13, 1994):  A new constitution was approved in a referendum on January 15, 1978.  Congressional elections were held on April 29, 1979, and the Concentration of Popular Forces (CFP) won 45 out of 69 seats in the National Assembly.  Jaime Roldos Aguilera of the CFP was elected president with 68 percent of the vote on April 29, 1979, and he was inaugurated as president on August 10, 1979.  President Roldos Aguilera was killed in a plane crash on May 24, 1981.  The government declared a state-of-emergency on October 21-29, 1982.  Congressional elections were held on January 29 and May 6, 1984, and the Democratic Left (DL) won 24 out of 71 seats in the National Congress.  Leon Febres Cordero of the National Reconstruction Front (FRN) was elected president with 52 percent of the vote on May 6, 1984.  On September 1-2, 1985, government troops killed five Elroy Alfaro Popular Armed Forces (EAPAF) rebels after the kidnapping of Nahim Isaias Barquet on August 7, 1985.  Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Lt. General Frank Vargas Pazzos beginning on March 11, 1986.  The government declared a state-of-emergency from March 14-17, 1986.  Congressional elections were held on June 1, 1986, and the FRN won 17 out of 59 contested seats.  Ricardo Arturo Jarrin, leader of the EAPAF, was killed by government troops on October 27, 1986.  The Confederation of Indigenous Nations of Ecuador (Confederacion de Nacionalidades Indígenas del Ecuador - CONAIE) was established by some 500 indigenous representatives at a convention held on November 13-16, 1986.  President Febres Cordero and 40 staff personnel were held hostage by military commandos at Tauta air base on January 16, 1987.  Fifty-eight of the commandos were court martialed and sentenced to prison terms on July 21, 1987.  The government declared a state of emergency from October 28 to October 30, 1987.  Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the DL was elected president on May 8, 1988, and he was inaugurated as president on August 10, 1988.  The government declared a state-of-emergency from May 31 to June 1, 1988.  The government declared a state-of-emergency from September 27 to October 13, 1989.  Parliamentary elections were held on January 31, 1990. Sixto Duran-Ballen of the right-wing Republican Unity Party (RUP) was elected president in a run-off election on July 5, 1992.  Congressional elections were held on May 1, 1994, and the Social Christian Party (Partido Social Cristiano - PSC) won 22 out of 65 contested seats in the National Congress.  President Duran-Ballen signed a new Agrarian Reform Law on June 13, 1994.

(243-1355)  Crisis Phase (June 14, 1994-July 25, 1994):  Indigenous groups protested the signing of the Agrarian Reform Law beginning on June 14, 1994.  President Duran-Ballen declared a state-of-emergency on June 21, 1994.  On July 25, 1994, representatives of the government and CONAIE reached an agreement to make changes to the Agrarian Reform Law.  Some 50 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(243-1356)  Post-Crisis Phase (July 26, 1994-January 19, 2000):  Eleven constitutional amendments were rejected in a referendum on November 26, 1995. Congressional elections were held on May 19, 1996, and the PSC won 27 out of 82 seats in the Chamber of Representatives.  The Ecudorean Roldosist Party (Partido Roldosista Ecuatoriano - PRE) won 19 seats in the Chamber of Representatives.  The International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) sent four observers to monitor the parliamentary elections.  Abdala Bucaram Ortiz of the PRE was elected president with 54 percent of the vote on July 7, 1996.  The Organization of American States (OAS) sent 50 observers to monitor the election process from May 12 to July 8, 1996.  Abdala Bucaram Ortiz was inaugurated as president on August 10, 1996.  The National Congress impeached President Bucaram Ortiz for "mental incompetence" on February 6, 1997.  The National Congress declared a state-of-emergency on February 7, 1997, and elected Vice President Rosalia Arteaga Serrano as interim president on February 8, 1997. President Arteaga Serrano submitted her resignation on February 11, 1997, and the National Congress appointed Fabian Alarcon Rivera as provisional president on February 12, 1997. President Alarcon Rivera was endorsed in a referendum on May 25, 1997. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on November 30, 1997, and the PSC won 24 out of 70 seats in the assembly.  Congressional elections were held on May 31 and July 12, 1998, and the Popular Democracy Party (PDP) won 35 out of 121 seats in the National Congress.  Jamil Mahuad of the PDP was elected president with 51 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections held on July 12, 1998.  The IFES sent two observers to monitor the elections.  The OAS sent 40 observers to monitor the elections between May and July 1998.  The government declared a state-of-emergency in Guayas province on January 11, 1999.  The government declared a 60-day state-of-emergency on March 9, 1999.  President Mahuad declared a state-of-emergency on July 6, 1999.

(243-1357)  Crisis Phase (January 20, 2000-January 15, 2003):  President Mahuad was overthrown during a rebellion supported by the military on January 20-22, 2000.  The OAS Council expressed support for President Mahuad, and condemned the rebellion on January 21, 2000.  The OAS secretary-general condemned the rebellion on January 21, 2000.  A three-member junta including Antonio Vargas of CONAIE, Colonel Lucio Gutierrez, and Carlos Solorzano took control of the government on January 21, 2000, but Vice-President Gustavo Noboa was approved as president by the Congress on January 22, 2000. Brazil condemned the rebellion on January 21, 2000.  Britain, Chile, France, Peru, and the US condemned the rebellion on January 22, 2000.  The European Union (EU) condemned the rebellion on January 22, 2000. The OAS Council condemned the overthrow of President Mahuad on January 26, 2000.  The CONAIE organized demonstrations against the government beginning on January 21, 2001.  The government declared a state-of-emergency on February 2, 2001.  Government troops killed two indigenous persons in the Amazon region on February 5, 2001.  The government lifted the state-of-emergency on February 7, 2001.  Congressional elections were held on October 20, 2002, and the PSC won 26 out of 100 seats in the National Congress. The PRE won 15 seats in the National Congress.  Lucio Edwin Gutierrez Borbua of the Partido Sociedad Patriotica (PSP) was elected president with 54 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections held on November 24, 2002, and he was inaugurated as president on January 15, 2003.  The OAS sent observers to monitor the presidential and congressional elections.  The International Republican Institute (IRI) sent 26 observers headed by Jorge Quiroga of Bolivia to monitor the presidential and congressional elections from October 12 to November 25, 2002.  The EU sent six election experts, 16 long-term observers, and 40 short-term observers headed by Emma Bonino of Italy to monitor the presidential and congressional elections between September 9 and December 15, 2002.

(243-1358)  Post-Crisis Phase (January 15, 2003-December 8, 2004):   Regional elections were held on October 17, 2004.  The OAS sent observers to monitor the regional elections.

(243-1359)  Crisis Phase (December 9, 2004-November 30, 2005):  President Gutierrez dismissed the entire 31-member Supreme Court on December 9, 2004.  The US offered to "facilitate dialogue" between the government and opposition on April 7, 2005.  President Gutierrez declared a state-of-emergency on April 15, 2005, but lifted the state-of-emergency on April 16, 2005.  Congress removed President Gutierrez from power on April 20, 2005, and installed Vice-President Alfredo Palacio as president.  The South America Community of Nations (CSN) attempted to mediate negotiations in Ecuador beginning on April 21, 2005.  The OAS sent a high-level fact-finding mission to Ecuador from April 22 to May 11, 2005.  On August 18, 2005, OAS Secretary-General Jose Miguel Insulza appointed Sonia Picado of Costa Rica and Jose Antonio Viera Gallo of Chile as special representatives to monitor the process of selecting members of the Supreme Court.  The UN and CSN also sent observers to monitor the process of selecting members of the Supreme Court.  OAS Assistant Secretary-General Albert Ramdin appealed for a "constructive dialogue" on August 30, 2005.  Thirty-one individuals were sworn in as judges on the Supreme Court on November 30, 2005.

(243-1360)  Post-Crisis Phase (December 1, 2005-present):  Congressional elections were held on October 15, 2006, and the Institutional Renewal Party of National Action (Partido Renovador Institucional de Acción Nacional - PRIAN) won 27 out of 100 seats in the National Congress.  The Patriotic Society Party (Partido Sociedad Patriótica - PSP) won 23 seats in the National Congress.  Rafael Correa of the Proud and Sovereign Fatherland Alliance (Patria Altiva i Soberana - PAIS) was elected president with 57 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections held on November 26, 2006.  The OAS sent observers headed by Rafael Bielsa of Argentina to monitor the congressional and presidential elections from August 15 to November 27, 2006.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), January 21, 2000, January 22, 2000, November 25, 2002, January 15, 2003; Banks and Muller, 1998, 271-277; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 633-648; Beigbeder, 1994, 232; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), May 1, 1998, July 6, 1999, January 22, 2000, February 3, 2001, February 4, 2001, February 13, 2001, November 25, 2002, November 10, 2004, December 9, 2004, April 8, 2005, April 16, 2005, April 17, 2005, April 20, 2005, April 24, 2005, November 30, 2005; Cable News Network (CNN), March 9, 1999, February 8, 2001; Degenhardt, 1988, 82-83; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1342-1343; European Union (EU) press release, September 10, 2002; European Union (EU) statement, November 25, 2002; Facts on File, June 30-July 6, 1946, August 11-17, 1946, August 24-30, 1947, August 31-September 6, 1947, June 6-12, 1948, August 29-September 4, 1948, May 30-June 5, 1952, September 12-18, 1956, June 16-22, 1960, November 2-8, 1961, November 9-15, 1961, June 7-13, 1962, July 11-17, 1963, May 19-25, 1966, December 26-31, 1968, February 13-19, 1972, September 13, 1975, January 12, 1976, May 4, 1979, August 17, 1979; Financial Times (FT), April 21, 2005; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1911, 186-188; Hispanic American Report (HAR), July 1950, November 1951, March 1952, April 1952, June 1952, November 1952, July 1956, August 1956, September 1959, May 1960, November 1960, December 1961, July 1963; Jessup, 1998, 175-177; Keesing's Record of World Events, June 17-24, 1944, August 31-September 7, 1946, September 13-20, 1947, October 11-18, 1947, July 10-17, 1948, July 2-9, 1960, December 16-23, 1961, August 17-24, 1963, October 22-29, 1966, April 29-May 6, 1967, June 29-July 6, 1968, July 11-18, 1970, May 29-June 5, 1971; March 11-18, 1972, October 6-12, 1975, February 13, 1976, July 20, 1979, November 2, 1979, July 1992, July 1996, August 1996, February 1997, December 1997, May 1998; Langer, 1972, 851-852, 1257; Munro, 1961, 281-291; New York Times (NYT), October 21, 1982,, October 29, 1982, October 28, 1987, October 30, 1987; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, January 21, 2000, January 26, 2000, September 20, 2002, October 18, 2004, April 22, 2005, April 26, 2005, May 11, 2005, August 18, 2005, August 30, 2005, August 15, 2006, November 27, 2006, November 28, 2006; Reuters, January 21, 2000, January 22, 2000, October 21, 2002, January 15, 2003; Robertson, 1943, 358-378; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1938, 698-699.]

(244-1362) Conflict Phase (November 20, 1910-August 20, 1914): Francisco Indalecio Madero led a rebellion against the government of President Diaz beginning on November 20, 1910. Government troops were defeated by rebels led by Pancho Villa in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua on May 10, 1911. Government troops fired on demonstrators in the Plaza de la Constitucion on May 24, 1911, and President Porfirio Diaz resigned on May 25, 1911. Francisco de la Barra was appointed as provisional president on May 26, 1911. Francisco Madero entered Mexico City on June 7, 1911. Francisco Madero was elected president on October 15, 1911, and he was inaugurated as president on November 6, 1911. Emiliano Zapata, originally a supporter of President Madero, led a rebellion against the government in southern Mexico beginning on August 30, 1911. Pascual Orozco led a rebellion against the government in northern Mexico beginning in March 1912, but government troops commanded by General Victoriano Huerta suppressed the rebellion in October 1912. The US imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the government and rebels on March 14, 1912. [Note: these military sanctions are intermediary, not participatory, since they were imposed on both parties to the dispute.] Some 680 individuals were killed in the Orozco rebellion. General Felix Diaz led a rebellion against the government in Vera Cruz beginning on October 12, 1912, but the rebellion was suppressed by government troops on October 23, 1912.  President Francisco Madero was overthrown during a Conservative counter-rebellion led by General Victoriano Huerta on February 13-19, 1913, resulting in the deaths of more than 2,000 government soldiers and civilians. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of General Huerta on February 18, 1913. President Madero and Vice-President Pino Suarez were killed on February 22, 1913. President Woodrow Wilson of the US appointed John Lind as special representative to Mexico on August 4, 1913, but the Mexican government rejected the good offices of the US on August 16, 1913. General Huerta arrested the members of the Chamber of Deputies on October 10, 1913, and established a military dictatorship on October 11, 1913. The government of General Huerta was opposed by rebels led by Venustiano Carranza and Pancho Villa. The US lifted military sanctions against the government and rebels on February 1, 1914. General Huerta was elected president on July 5, 1914, but he resigned on July 15, 1914. Francisco Carbajal was appointed as provisional president on July 16, 1914. General Alvaro Obregon’s troops captured Mexico City on August 15, 1914, and Venustiano Carranza was appointed as president on August 20, 1914. Some 80,000 individuals were killed during the rebellion.

(244-1364) Conflict Phase (October 1, 1914-July 28, 1920): Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata led a rebellion against the government of President Carranza beginning in October 1914. Rebel troops commanded by Pancho Villa captured Mexico City, but government troops commanded by General Alvaro Obregon re-captured the capital on January 27, 1915. Pancho Villa’s rebel troops were defeated in two battles at Celaya from April 6-15, 1915, but Pancho Villa escaped to northern Mexico where he continued his rebellion. Some 5,000 rebels and 1,000 government troops were killed in the Celaya battles. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Carranza on October 19, 1915, and Britain provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on November 16, 1915. The US imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the rebel groups on October 20, 1915. Pancho Villa’s rebels attacked the US cavalry garrison in the town on Columbus, New Mexico on March 9, 1916, resulting in the deaths of 18 Americans and 100 Mexicans. On March 15, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson of the US ordered General John Pershing and 12,000 US troops to pursue Pancho Villa into northern Mexico. US troops clashed with rebel soldiers at Parral in the state of Chihuahua on April 12, 1916, resulting in the deaths of some 100 Mexicans. President Carranza condemned the US intervention in June 1916. US and Mexican government troops clashed at Carrizal on June 21, 1916. A constitutional convention convened on November 21, 1916, and a new constitution was approved by the constitutional convention on January 31, 1917. US troops completed their withdrawal from Mexico on February 5, 1917 (30 US soldiers were killed during the intervention). The constitution establishing a federal republic went into effect on February 5, 1917. President Carranza was re-elected to a four-year term on March 11, 1917. Some 1,000 rebels led by Pancho Villa briefly captured Chihuahua on November 25, 1917. Emiliano Zapata was killed in an ambush by government troops led by Colonel Jesus Guajardo on April 4, 1919. Pancho Villa’s rebels attacked Ciudad Juarez (across the border from El Paso, Texas) on June 15, 1919, and US troops intervened in support of government troops between June 16, 1919 and February 25, 1920. President Carranza was killed during a military rebellion led by Generals Obregon, Plutarco Elias Calles, and Adolfo de la Huerta on May 21, 1920. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the military government on May 22, 1920. Adolfo de la Huerta was appointed as provisional president on May 25, 1920. Pancho Villa surrendered to government troops on July 28, 1920 (he was later assassinated by Jesus Salas Barraza in Parral on July 20, 1923). Some 200,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(244-1365) Post-Conflict Phase (July 29, 1920-July 31, 1926): General Obregon was elected president on September 5, 1920, and he was inaugurated as president on November 30, 1920. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Obregon on September 3, 1923. Former President Adolfo de la Huerta led a rebellion against the government of President Obregon in Vera Cruz beginning on December 4, 1923. The US provided military assistance to the government in January 1924. The government suppressed the rebellion on February 6, 1924, and Adolfo de la Huerta went into exile to Florida on March 12, 1924. Some 7,000 individuals were killed during the rebellion. Plutarco Elias Calles was elected president in July 1924, and he was inaugurated as president on November 30, 1924. The government ordered the arrest and deportation of foreign Roman Catholic priests on February 11, 1926. On April 21, 1926, Roman Catholic bishops in Mexico condemned the provisions of the constitution concerning the Church. Some 7,000 individuals were killed in political violence between July 1920 and July 1926.

(244-1366) Conflict Phase (July 31, 1926-September 20, 1929): Rene Capistran Garza and General Enrique Gorostieta led the Cristero rebellion against the government beginning on July 31, 1926. President Elias Calles ordered the nationalization of Roman Catholic Church property on February 11, 1927. The US imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the government. President Calles violently suppressed a military rebellion led by Generals Arnulfo Gomez and Francisco Serrano in October 1927. Alvaro Obregon was elected president on July 1, 1928, but he was assassinated by Jose Toral on July 17, 1928. Emilio Portes Gil was appointed as provisional president by the Congress in September 1928. General Jesus Maria Aguirre and General Gonzalo Escobar led a rebellion against the government in northern Mexico beginning on March 3, 1929. Some 35,000 government troops suppressed the rebellion on May 4, 1929. Some 2,000 individuals, including 1,000 rebels and 161 government soldiers, were killed during the rebellion. Ambassador Dwight Morrow of the US mediated negotiations between the government and Cristeros rebels in Havana, Cuba beginning in January 1928, and the parties agreed to peacefully resolve their dispute on June 21, 1929. The US lifted military sanctions against the government on July 18, 1929. On September 20, 1929, the Cristero rebellion ended after the government agreed to end its persecution of the Roman Catholic Church. Some 100,000 individuals were killed during the Cristero rebellion.

(244-1367) Post-Conflict Phase (September 21, 1929-July 7, 1946): Pascual Ortiz Rubio was elected president in November 1929, and he was inaugurated as president on February 5, 1930. Mexico joined the League of Nations (LON) on September 9, 1931. President Rubio resigned due to ill health on September 3, 1932, and General Abelardo Rodriguez was appointed as provisional president. General Lazaro Cardenas of the National Revolutionary Party (NRP) was elected president on July 2, 1934. In September 1934, some 30,000 Roman Catholics demonstrated in Mexico City against the nationalization of church property. General Cardenas was inaugurated as president in November 1934. Four Roman Catholics were killed during demonstrations in the state of Tabasco in May 1937. The NRP became the Party of the Mexican Revolution (PMR) in 1938. The government suppressed a rebellion led by General Saturnino Cedillo in San Luis Potosi from May 1938 to January 1939. General Manuel Avila Camacho of the PMR was elected president on July 7, 1940. Congress convened in Mexico City on September 1, 1940. General Juan Andres Almazan of the National Federation of Independent Parties (NFIP) claimed election fraud. General Avila Camacho was inaugurated as president on December 1, 1940. The Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) was established in 1945. Some 50 individuals were killed by government troops as a result of civil and political unrest in Leon in the state of Guanajuato in January 1946. Miguel Aleman Valdes of the PRI was elected president on July 7, 1946. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between September 1929 and July 1946.

(244-1368) Post-Crisis Phase (July 8, 1946-September 7, 1968): Several thousand leftist students demonstrated against the government in Mexico City beginning in July 1968.

(244-1369) Crisis Phase (September 8, 1968-December 31, 1976): Government troops suppressed the student movement at National University in Mexico City from September 8 to October 2, 1968, resulting in the deaths of some 300 individuals. Lucio Cabanas and Genaro Vasquez led a peasant rebellion against the government in the state of Guerrero from 1970 to 1975. Several hundred peasants and government soldiers were killed during the rebellion. Parliamentary elections were held on July 5, 1970, and the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) won 178 out of 300 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Luis Echeverria Alvarez of the PRI was elected president on July 15, 1970. Two individuals were killed in political violence near Ciudad Juarez on May 3, 1971. Nine individuals were killed in political violence in Mexico City on June 10, 1971. Members of the Poor People’s Party (Partido de los Pobres - PLP) led by Lucio Cabanas killed ten government soldiers near Acapulco on June 25, 1972. Government troops launched a military offensive against PLP rebels from September to December 1974, resulting in the deaths of some 800 individuals. Left-wing rebels killed 17 government policemen and eight civilians between April 25 and December 1, 1975. Left-wing rebels killed nine individuals near Mexico City on May 6, 1976. Government troops and peasants clashed in Venustiano Carranza on May 11-12, 1976, resulting in the deaths of 58 peasants and two government soldiers. Government police and left-wing rebels clashed near Mexico City on June 4, 1976, resulting in the deaths of six government policemen. Government police and left-wing rebels clashed near Culiacan on June 18, 1976, resulting in the deaths of three rebels and one policeman. Jose Lopez Portillo of the PRI was elected president with 94 percent of the vote on July 4, 1976, and he was inaugurated as president on December 1, 1976. Some 2,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(244-1370) Post-Crisis Phase (January 1, 1977-December 31, 1993): Parliamentary elections were held on July 1, 1979, and the PRI won 296 out of 300 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The National Action Party (Partido Accion Nacional - PAN) won four seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Miguel de la Madrid Hutado was elected president with 74 percent of the vote in July 1982. Parliamentary elections were held on July 7, 1985, and the PRI won 292 out of 300 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Ten individuals were killed in political violence in December 1985 and January 1986. Carlos Salinas de Gortari was elected president with 50 percent of the vote on July 6, 1988, and he was inaugurated as president on December 1, 1988. Parliamentary elections were held on Augsut 18, 1991, and the PRI won 326 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PAN won 92 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and the Party of the Democratic Revolution (Partido de la Revolucion Democratica - PRD) won 40 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.

(244-1371) Crisis Phase (January 1, 1994-February 28, 1996): The Zapatista National Liberation Army (ZNLA) led by Rafael Sebastian Guillen Vicente (Sub-Commandante Marcos) rebelled against the government in the state of Chiapas on January 1-March 2, 1994, resulting in the deaths of some 140 individuals. Luis Donaldo Colosio Murrieta, presidential candidate of the PRI, was assassinated in Tijuana on March 23, 1994. Congressional elections were held on August 21, 1994, and the PRI won 277 out of 300 contested seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PAN won 18 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon of the PRI was elected president with 49 percent of the vote on August 21, 1994. The Carter Center/Council of Freely Elected Heads of Government (CC/CFEHG) sent 15 observers headed by Rodrigo Carazo of Costa Rica and Vinicio Cerezo of Guatemala to monitor the elections. The National Democratic Institute (NDI) and International Republican Institute (IRI) sent 65 observers to jointly observe the elections. The International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) sent eight observers to monitor the elections on August 17-22, 1994. Government troops launched a military offensive against ZNLA rebels on February 9, 1995. Mexican government and ZNLA representatives resumed negotiations on April 21, 1995. Five government police were killed near the town of Cualac in the state of Guerrero on July 7, 1995. Government and ZNLA representatives signed an accord on September 11, 1995. The government and ZNLA agreed to a ceasefire in February 1996. Some 200 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(244-1372) Post-Crisis Phase (March 1, 1996-present): Popular Revolutionary Army (PRA) rebels killed 13 individuals on August 18, 1996. Negotiations between government and ZNLA representatives were suspended in September 1996. Parliamentary elections were held on July 6, 1997, and the PRI won 238 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Paramilitary troops linked to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) killed 45 Zapatista supporters in the village of Acteal in Chiapas on December 22, 1997. Some 5,200 individuals were internally displaced in northern Chiapas in 1998. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) provided humanitarian assistance to individuals displaced during the conflict on November 3-7, 1998. Three supporters of the ZNLA were killed by Mexican paramilitaries on February 1, 2000. The NDI sent a six-member pre-election assessment mission to Mexico on May 7-12, 2000. Vicente Fox of the PAN was elected president on July 2, 2000, and he was inaugurated as president on December 1, 2000. The NDI sent 42 observers from twelve countries headed by Ramiro de Leon Carpio of Guatemala to monitor the presidential election from June 28-July 4, 2000. The IRI sent 43 observers headed by James Baker of the US to monitor the presidential election. The Carter Center (CC) sent observers headed by Jimmy Carter of the US and Gonzalo Zanchez de Lozada of Bolivia to monitor the presidential election on June 30-July 3, 2000.  Felipe Calderon Hinojosa of the PAN was elected president with 35.9 percent of the vote on July 2, 2006.  Parliamentary elections were held on July 2, 2006, and the PAN won 206 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The Party of the Democratic Revolution (Partido de la Revolucion Democratica - PRD) won 127 seats, and the PRI won 106 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The EU sent 10 election experts and 66 long-term observers headed by Jose Ignacio Salafranca Sanchez-Neyra of Spain to monitor the elections from June 10, 2006 to September 7, 2006.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), February 2, 2000, December 1, 2000; Banks and Muller, 1998, 603-610; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 684-720; Carter Center (CC) press release, June 29, 2000, June 30, 2000, July 3, 2000; Clodfelter, 1992, 676-688, 690-691, 692-693, 1168-1169; Degenhardt, 1988, 235-236; European Union (EU) press release, June 15, 2006; European Union (EU) report, November 23, 2006; European Union (EU) statement, July 3, 2006; Facts on File, September 26-October 2, 1968, October 10-16, 1968, July 23-29, 1970, June 10-16, 1971, December 13, 1975, June 12, 1976, July 10, 1976, July 20, 1979; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1913, 818-838; International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) press release, November 12, 1998; International Republican Institute (IRI) statement, July 6, 2000; Jessup, 1998, 471-473; Keesing's Record of World Events, September 19-26, 1970, August 27, 1976, August 1991, January 1994, August 1994, February 1995, April 1995, July 1995, September 1995, December 1997; Langer, 1972, 858-860, 1069-1072, 1241-1242; Marley, 1998, 606-608, 615-633, 642-644; Munro, 1961, 347-385; National Democratic Institute (NDI) press release, May 12, 2000, June 9, 2000, June 23, 2000; National Democratic Institute (NDI) statement, July 3, 2000; New York Times (NYT), July 3, 2006; Reuters, December 23, 1997, December 1, 2000; Robertson, 1943, 451-487; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1925 (supplement), 191, 1929, 510; Wright, 1964, 69-78.]

 

(245-1374) Conflict Phase (October 17, 1918-May 19, 1920): Charlemagne Perlate and Benoit Batraville led a Cacos rebellion against the Haitian government and US peacekeeping troops from October 17, 1918 to May 19, 1920.  Some 2,000 rebels, 28 US soldiers, and 70 Haitian government soldiers were killed during the conflict.

(245-1375) Post-Conflict Phase (May 20, 1920-June 17, 1935): Louis Borno was elected president by the Haitian Council of State on April 11, 1922. President Borno was re-elected by the Haitian Council of State on April 12, 1926. US peacekeeping troops and Haitians clashed in Aux Cayes on December 7, 1929, resulting in the deaths of six individuals. The government declared martial law. Eugene Roy was elected provisional president by the Haitian Council of State on April 21, 1930, and he was inaugurated as provisional president on May 15, 1930. Parliamentary elections were held on October 14, 1930. Stenio Vincent was elected president by the National Assembly on November 18, 1930. US peacekeeping troops completed their withdrawal from Haiti on August 15, 1934. A new constitution was ratified in a referendum on June 2, 1935, and the constitution went into effect on June 17, 1935. Some 7,000 individuals were killed in political violence between May 1920 and June 1935.

(245-1376) Post-Crisis Phase (June 18, 1935-January 9, 1946): Elie Lescot was elected president by the National Assembly on April 15, 1941. On April 20, 1944, the National Assembly amended the constitution and extended the term of President Lescot.  The US provided economic assistance to the government beginning in 1944.

(245-1377) Crisis Phase (January 10, 1946-October 23, 1957): Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Port-au-Prince on January 10, 1946, resulting in the deaths of several individuals. President Lescot was overthrown in a military rebellion led by Colonel Paul Magloire on January 11, 1946, and a three-member military junta took control of the government on January 12, 1946. Fourteen individuals were killed during the rebellion. Parliamentary elections were held on May 12, 1946. Five individuals were killed in political violence in Cape Haitien on May 14, 1946. Dumarsais Estime was elected president by the National Assembly on August 16, 1946. The government banned the Communist Party of Haiti (Partido Communista de Haiti - PCH) on February 11, 1948. President Estime resigned on May 10, 1950, and a three-member military junta took control of the government on May 11, 1950. Colonel Magloire of the Movement of Workers and Peasants (MWP) was elected president with 99 percent of the vote on October 8, 1950. Colonel Magloire was inaugurated as president on December 6, 1950. Opposition candidate Fenelon Alphonse claimed election fraud. The government suppressed a rebellion by the Popular Labor Movement (PLM) headed by Daniel Fignole on January 9, 1954. Some 171 individuals were arrested for their involvement in the rebellion. On April 16, 1954, President Magloire granted amnesty to Daniel Fignole and other individuals involved in the rebellion. The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government beginning on September 12, 1955. The Haitian Congress declared a state-of-siege on May 21, 1956. Opposition political groups exploded a bomb in Port-au-Prince on December 7, 1956, and the government responded by suspending political activity. President Magloire resigned on December 12, 1956, and he fled into exile to Jamaica on December 13, 1956. Joseph Nemours Pierre-Louis became provisional president on December 15, 1956, but he resigned on February 3, 1957. Franck Sylvain was appointed as provisional president by the Haitian Congress on February 6, 1957. President Sylvain announced the dissolution of the National Assembly on March 30, 1957. President Sylvain resigned on April 2, 1957, and a provisional executive council took control of the government beginning on April 6, 1957. Government police fired on demonstrators in Port-au-Prince on May 18, 1957, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. General Leon Contave dissolved the executive council and took control of the government on May 21, 1957. Some 50 individuals were killed during civil violence in Port-au-Prince on May 24-26, 1957. Daniel Fignola was appointed as provisional president on May 26, 1957. President Fignola was deposed in a military coup led by General Antonio Kebreau on June 14, 1957, and a three-member military junta took control of the government on June 15, 1957. Some 50 individuals were killed in political violence in Port-au-Prince on June 15-17, 1957. Parliamentary elections were held on September 22, 1957, and supporters of Francois Duvalier won 23 out of 37 seats in the parliament. Francois Duvalier was elected president with 72 percent of the vote on September 22, 1957. Opposition presidential candidate Louis Dejoie claimed election fraud. Four government soldiers were killed during political violence on September 26, 1957, and the government declared martial law on September 27, 1957. Francois Duvalier was inaugurated as president on October 22, 1957, and he lifted martial law on October 23, 1957. Some 150 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(245-1379) Crisis Phase (May 2, 1958-February 14, 1986): The National Assembly declared a state-of-siege on May 2, 1958. The government suppressed a rebellion in Port-au-Prince on July 29, 1958, resulting in the deaths of eight rebels. The National Assembly authorized President Duvalier to govern by emergency decree on August 1, 1958. Three Haitians were sentenced to death for subversion on October 26, 1958. President Duvalier formed the Tonton Macoutes (TM), a secret police force, to intimidate political opposition. Haitian exiles opposed to the government of President Duvalier invaded Haiti on August 15, 1959. The rebels, which were supported militarily by Cuba, were defeated by government troops. Some 26 individuals were killed during the invasion. The Inter-American Peace Committee (IAPC) sent a five-member fact-finding mission headed by John Drier of the US to the country on September 3-4, 1959. On November 22, 1960, President Duvalier declared martial law as a result of a student strike in Port-au-Prince. President Duvalier lifted martial law on January 14, 1961. President Duvalier dissolved the bicameral parliament on April 7, 1961. Elections were held for a unicameral parliament on April 30, 1961, and supporters of President Duvalier won 58 out of 58 seats in the National Assembly. President Duvalier was re-elected without opposition on April 30, 1961, and he was inaugurated for a second term on May 22, 1961. On April 16, 1963, the government announced that it had uncovered a plot to overthrow the government.  Several individuals were killed in political violence in Port-au-Prince on April 26, 1963.  The US imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) and military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government on April 29, 1963.  The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on May 17, 1963. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on June 3, 1963. Government troops killed ten members of the Committee of Haitian Democratic Forces (Comite des Forces Democratiques Haitiennes - CFDH) near Cazeau on July 13, 1963. Government troops and Haitian rebels clashed near Petionville and Kenscoff on July 13-15, 1963, resulting in the deaths of some 65 soldiers. Government troops suppressed a rebel invasion in northern Haiti on August 5-7, 1963.  The Haitian government referred the matter to the Organization of American States (OAS) on August 5, 1963, and the OAS Permanent Council established a five-member commission of inquiry on August 6, 1963.  The US mobilized naval ships in the area as a show of force against the government between August 6, 1963 and August 22, 1963.  Government troops suppressed a rebel invasion from the Dominican Republic on August 15, 1963. The Haitian parliament granted emergency powers to President Duvalier on August 22, 1963. President Duvalier was proclaimed president-for-life on April 1, 1964, and a new constitution went into effect on June 21, 1964. The government suppressed an attempted exile invasion on May 20-22, 1968, resulting in the deaths of five rebels. Haiti accused the US of supporting the invasion. Some 2,000 individuals were executed by the government from 1957 to 1968. The United Party of Haitian Communists (PUCH) was established in opposition to the government in 1969. The government suppressed a rebellion on April 24, 1970, and nine individuals were executed for their involvement in the rebellion on April 28, 1970. President Duvalier died in Port-au-Prince on April 21, 1971, and Jean Claude Duvalier assumed the presidency on April 22, 1971. The US lifted economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government in 1973.  The Inter-American Human Rights Commission (IAHRC) sent a three-member fact-finding mission to Haiti on August 16-25, 1978. Parliamentary elections were held on February 11, 1979, and the National Unity Party (Parti de l’Unite Nationale - PUN) won 57 out of 58 seats in the National Assembly. Silvio Claude established the Haitian Christian Democratic Party (Parti Democratique Chretien d’Haiti - PDCH) on July 5, 1979. The government suppressed a rebel invasion on January 9, 1982, resulting in the deaths of four government soldiers and eight rebels. Municipal elections were held on April 10 and May 15, 1983. A new constitution went into effect on August 27, 1983. Parliamentary elections were held on February 12, 1984, and supporters of President Jean Claude Duvalier won 59 out of 59 seats in the National Seats. Two individuals were killed by government troops in Port-au-Prince on April 22, 1985. The "presidency-for-life" was approved by 99 percent of the vote in a referendum on July 22, 1985. Government troops suppressed a student demonstration in Gonaives on November 27-28, 1985, resulting in the deaths of four individuals. Marc Louis Bazin established the Movement for the Installation of Democracy in Haiti (Mouvement pour l‘Instauration de la Democratie en Haiti - MIDH) in 1986. The US imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government on January 29, 1986.  The government declared a state-of-siege on January 29, 1986.  President Jean Claude Duvalier fled to France on February 7, 1986, and the five-member National Council of Government (Conseil National du Gouvernement - CNG) headed by General Henri Namphy took control of the government. The CNG dissolved the National Assembly and suspended the constitution on February 10, 1986.  The government lifted the state-of-siege on February 14, 1986.  Some 15,000 individuals were killed during the crisis. 
 

(245-1380) Post-Crisis Phase (February 15, 1986-July 22, 1987):  The US lifted economic sanctions against the government on February 26, 1986. Ten individuals were killed in political violence in Port-au-Prince on March 19, 1986. The European Community (EC) provided $4.9 million in economic assistance on October 8, 1986. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on October 19, 1986. Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Port-au-Prince on November 17-18, 1986, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. The World Bank (WB) provided reconstruction assistance (transportation sector) to the government between February 3, 1987 and June 30, 1996.  A new constitution was approved in a referendum on March 29, 1987.  Some 24 individuals were killed during demonstrations against the CNG in June 1987.

(245-1381) Crisis Phase (July 23, 1987-February 7, 1991): Several hundred peasants were killed by members of the Tontons Macoutes (TM) near the town on Jean Rabel on July 23-24, 1987. Eight individuals were killed by government troops in Port-au-Prince on July 29, 1987 (the individuals were protesting the government’s failure to control the TM).  Louis Eugene Athis, leader of the Haitian Democratic Liberation Movement (HDLM) was assassinated in Leogane on August 2, 1987.  Presidential elections were held on November 29, 1987, but balloting was suspended as a result of violence.  Thirty-four individuals were killed in political violence on November 29, 1987.  The US imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government on December 1, 1987.  France imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic sanctions) against the government on January 2, 1988.  Leslie Manigat of the Rally of Progressive National Democrats (Rassemblement des Democrates Nationaux Progressistes - RDNP) was elected president with 50 percent of the vote on January 17, 1988, and he was inaugurated as president on February 7, 1988. The OAS sent observers to monitor the elections. President Manigat was deposed in a military coup led by General Henri Namphy on June 19, 1988. General Namphy dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution on June 20, 1988. The Organization of American States (OAS)/Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) sent a fact-finding mission to investigate human rights conditions in Haiti on August 29-September 2, 1988. The OAS/IACHR issued a report on human rights conditions in Haiti on September 7, 1988. Thirteen individuals were massacred in San Juan Bosco Church in Port-au-Prince on September 11, 1988. General Namphy was deposed in a military coup led by General Prosper Avril, and General Avril took control of the government on September 18, 1988. The World Bank (WB) provided reconstruction assistance (water sector) to the government between June 27, 1989 and June 30, 1999.  The US lifted economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government in August 1989.  The government imposed a state-of-siege on January 20-30, 1990.  The American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) established a mission to provide humanitarian assistance to Haitians beginning in 1989. General Avril resigned as president on March 10, 1990, and he fled to the US on March 12, 1990.  Twenty individuals were killed in political violence on March 10-12, 1990. Ertha Pascal Trouillot, a member of the Haitian Supreme Court, was sworn in as president on March 13, 1990.  Seventeen individuals were killed in political violence on March 23-24, 1990. The OAS/IACHR sent a three-member fact-finding mission and four staff personnel to investigate human rights conditions in Haiti on April 17-20, 1990. The United Nations (UN) secretary-general appointed Joao Augusto de Medicis as his personal representative to Haiti on June 19, 1990. President Trouillot requested UN electoral assistance on June 23, 1990.  The UN General Assembly established the United Nations Observer Mission to Verify the Electoral Process in Haiti (ONUVEH) on October 10, 1990. ONUVEH consisted of an electoral division (193 election observers from 43 countries), security division (64 security observers from six countries), and administrative division (26 personnel). Seven individuals were killed in political violence in Port-au-Prince on December 5, 1990. Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected president with 67 percent of the vote on December 16, 1990. The Carter Center/Council of Freely Elected Heads of Government (CC/CFEHG) and the National Democratic Institute (NDI) sent observers to jointly observe the presidential election. Government troops suppressed a rebellion led by Roger Lafontant on January 6-7, 1991, resulting in the deaths of some 70 individuals. Jean-Bertrand Aristide was inaugurated as president on February 7, 1991. The OAS sent 200 observers from 26 countries to monitor the presidential elections from November 15, 1990 to February 15, 1991.  Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(245-1382) Post-Crisis Phase (February 8, 1991-September 29, 1991): ONUVEH was disbanded on February 22, 1991.

(245-1385) Crisis Phase (July 2, 2000-present): Two supporters of Jean-Bertrand Aristide were killed in political violence on Ile-a-Vache, an island off the country’s southern coast, on July 2, 2000.  One individuals was killed in a bombing in Port-au-Prince on November 22, 2000.  Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected president on November 25, 2000, and he was inaugurated as president on February 7, 2001.  Opposition political parties boycotted the presidential election.  The Council of the European Union (EU) imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government on January 29, 2001.  Opposition political parties boycotted the presidential election.  Supporters of President Aristide clashed with opponents in Petionville beginning on March 14, 2001.  OAS Secretary-General Cesar Gaviria condemned the violence in Haiti on March 20, 2001. Five government policemen were killed in political violence on July 28, 2001.  OAS Secretary-General Cesar Gaviria condemned the violence in Haiti on July 31, 2001.  Two individuals were killed in political violence in St. Marc on November 30, 2001.  One individual was killed in political violence in the town of Petit-Goave on December 3, 2001.  Ten individuals, including two government policemen, were killed in political violence in Port-au-Prince on December 17, 2001.  Prime Minister Jean Marie Cherestal resigned on January 21, 2002.  On March 1, 2002, the OAS agreed to send a special fact-finding mission to Haiti. President Aristide appointed Yvon Neptune of the Lavalas Party (LP) as prime minister on March 15, 2002.  On April 5, 2002, the OAS established a three-member commission of inquiry (Dominica, Honduras, Mexico) to investigate the December 2001 political violence in Port-au-Prince, and the OAS established the Special Mission to Strengthen Democracy in Haiti (SMSDH) headed by David Lee of Canada.  Five individuals were killed in political violence between November 17 and December 7, 2002.  CARICOM initiated a mediation effort on January 9, 2004.  One individual was killed in political violence in Gonaives on January 26, 2004.  Armed opposition groups, which became known as the National Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Haiti (NRFLH), captured Gonaives on February 5, 2004.  The OAS Permanent Council condemned the violence in Haiti on February 19, 2004.  NRFLH rebels led by Guy Philippe captured Cap-Haitien on February 22, 2004, and rebels captured Les Cayes on February 26, 2004.  President Aristide resigned and departed from the country, and Boniface Alexandre was sworn in as interim president on February 29, 2004.  On February 29, 2004, US troops were deployed as a part of the Multinational Interim Force (MIF) in Haiti to maintain law and order and to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian assistance.  The MIF consisted of some 3,800 troops from the US (2,000 military personnel), France (900 military personnel), Canada (500 military personnel), and Chile (300 military personnel).  On March 4, 2004, the EU Commission decided to provide emergency humanitarian assistance to Haitians.  Church World Service (CWS) provided humanitarian assistance beginning on March 8, 2004.  Prime Minister Gerard Latortue formed a 13-member transitional government on March 17, 2004.  On April 30, 2004, the UN Security Council established the UN Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) to provide security for the transitional government and elections; to assist with the demobilization of military forces in Haiti; and to assist with maintaining law and order.  MINUSTAH, which consisted of some 7,500 peacekeeping troops commanded by Major-General Carlos Alberto Dos Santos of Brazil and 1,900 civilian police commanded by Mamadou Mountaga Diallo of Guinea, was deployed in Haiti on June 1, 2004.  MIF was disbanded on May 31, 2004.  Canada decided to provide economic assistance to the government on July 18, 2004.  Government police killed five demonstrators in Port-au-Prince on February 28, 2005.  The International Mission for Monitoring Haitian Elections (IMMHE), consisting of representatives from Brazil, Canada, Chile, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, and the US, was established on June 16, 2005.  The IMMHE deployed 20 long-term observers in Haiti in August 2005.  Rene Preval was elected president with 51 percent of the vote on February 7, 2006.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 7 and April 21, 2006, and the Front for Hope (FFH) won 23 out of 99 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The Fusion of Haitian Social Democrats (FHSD) won 17 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The EU sent 10 election experts, 24 long-term observers, and 34 short-term observers headed by Johan Van Hecke of Belgium to monitor the elections from November 12, 2005 to April 22, 2006.  Canada sent 106 observers to monitor the elections.  CARICOM sent six observers headed by Noel Lee of Jamaica to monitor the elections from February 4 to February 8, 2006.  OIF sent observers headed by Paul Berenger of Mauritius to monitor the elections from February 1 to February 8, 2006.  The IMMHE sent 130 short-term observers to monitor the elections from February 2 to April 22, 2006.  The International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) sent 10 long-term observers and 24 short-term observers to monitor the elections.  Rene Preval was inaugurated as president on May 14, 2006.  Jacques-Edouardo Alexis formed a government as prime minister on June 10, 2006.  The US lifted military sanctions (arms embargo) against the government on October 11, 2006 (military sanctions remained imposed against Haitian opposition groups).  Municipal elections were held on December 3, 2006.  CARICOM sent 17 observers to monitor the municipal elections.  Canada sent 22 observers to monitor the municipal elections from October 22 to December 13, 2006.  Some 250 individuals have been killed in political violence since July 2000.

[Sources: Agence France-Presse (AFP), January 26, 2004; Americas (English edition), November -December 1990, 53; Associated Press (AP), November 28, 1997, November 30, 1997, March 25, 1999, December 17, 1999, March 15, 2000, March 18, 2000, May 22, 2000, May 23, 2000, June 5, 2000, July 3, 2000, November 22, 2000, February 3, 2001, February 8, 2001, February 17, 2004; Banks and Muller, 1998, 389-395; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 756-762, 814-816; Beigbeder, 1994, 169-179, 230, 285, 292; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 95-96; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), February 6, 2004, February 12, 2004, February 20, 2004, February 25, 2004, February 27, 2004, February 28, 2004, March 6, 2004, March 10, 2004, March 21, 2005, April 9, 2005, April 16, 2005, April 28, 2005, June 1, 2005, February 8, 2006, May 14, 2006, June 10, 2006, October 11, 2006, November 11, 2006, December 22, 2006; Butterworth, 1976, 427-428; Caribbean Community (CARICOM) press release, May 22, 2000, February 3, 2006; Clodfelter, 1992, 688; Degenhardt, 1988, 145-146; Facts on File, January 6-12, 1946, May 12-18, 1946, May 5-11, 1950, May 16-22, 1957, May 23-29, 1957, June 13-19, 1957, October 17-23, 1957, November 17-23, 1960, January 12-18, 1961, April 6-12, 1961, May 4-10, 1961, June 1-7, 1961, May 30-June 5, 1963, August 8-14, 1963, August 15-21, 1963, September 5-11, 1963, April 2-8, 1964, July 16-22, 1964, May 30-June 5, 1968, May 14-20, 1970, April 22-28, 1971, February 8, 2001, December 20, 2001; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1908, 423-447; Hispanic American Report (HAR), May 1950, June 1950, August 1950, September 1950, October 1950, January 1954, April 1954, May 1956, December 1956, January 1957, February 1957, March 1957, May 1957, June 1957, September 1957, June 1958, August 1958, September 1958, November 1958, October 1959, December 1959, January 1961, March 1961, June 1961, May 1963, September 1963, October 1963, February 1964; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) report, March 9, 1993; Jessup, 1998, 273-274; Keesing's Record of World Events, February 9-16, 1946, September 7-14, 1946, June 17-24, 1950, December 30, 1950-January 6, 1951, February 2-9, 1957, March 29-April 5, 1958, March 29-April 5, 1958, May 15-22, 1971, March 5-11, 1979, April 27, 1979, January 11, 1980, March 12, 1982, August 1983, February 1986, November 1986, February 1988, September 1988, November 1988, March 1990, December 1990, January 1991, September 1991, October 1991, November 1991, September 1992, September 1993, September 1994, June 1995, September 1995, December 1995, February 1996, June 1997, July 1997, March 1999; Langer, 1972, 1072-1073, 1248; Latin America and Caribbean Contemporary Record (LACCR), 1982-1983, 1983-1984, 1984-1985, 1985-1986; Munro, 1934, 143-194; Munro, 1961, 457-476; Munro, 1964, 326-387; Munro, 1974, 71-115; New York Times (NYT), February 6, 2004, February 22, 2004, February 23, 2004, February 29, 2004, March 1, 2004, March 3, 2004, February 8, 2006, February 13, 2006, February 16, 2006; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, November 18, 1999, May 21, 2000, June 16, 2000, July 7, 2000, July 13, 2000, July 21, 2000, March 20, 2001, July 31, 2001, March 1, 2002, April 4, 2002, April 5, 2002, February 19, 2004; Reuters, March 25, 1999, November 30, 1999, December 17, 1999, March 15, 2000, May 19, 2000, May 24, 2000, June 7, 2000, July 7, 2000, March 20, 2001, March 21, 2001, December 17, 2001, March 4, 2002, March 15, 2002, December 7, 2002, February 1, 2004, February 7, 2004; Robertson, 1943, 416-423; Scheina, 2003, 41-47; Schmidt 1971; Stuart, 1943, 288-317; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1930, 564; UN Chronicle, March 1991, June 1991, June 1993, September 1993, June 1994, December 1994, March 1995, June 1995, September 1995; UN Security Council press release, April 30, 2004; World Council of Churches (WCC) press release, July 6, 2000; Wright, 1964, 91-96.]

(246-1387) Post-Crisis Phase (October 28, 1910-May 7, 1911): Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on November 27-28, 1910. Juan Estrada was elected president by the Constituent Assembly on December 31, 1910, and he was inaugurated on January 1, 1911. The US government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Estrada on January 1, 1911. President Estrada dissolved the Constituent Assembly on April 4, 1911.

(246-1388) Crisis Phase (May 8, 1911-July 28, 1912): President Estrada ordered the arrest of General Mena, the Minister of War, on May 8, 1911. On May 9, 1911, President Estrada resigned after an unsuccessful attempt to seize control of the government, and Vice-President Adolfo Diaz assumed the presidency on May 10, 1911. Liberal rebels bombed Fort Loma near Managua on May 31, 1911, resulting in the deaths of some 60 individuals. A new constitution went into effect on November 10, 1911. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(246-1389) Conflict Phase (July 29, 1912-October 9, 1912): General Mena led a Liberal rebellion against the government, and President Diaz requested military assistance from the US on July 29, 1912. The CACJ established a three-member conciliation commission (Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Honduras) on August 5, 1912. President Howard Taft of the US agreed to intervene in support of the government on August 5, 1912, and some 2,600 US troops commanded by Rear Admiral William Southerland and Colonel Joseph Pendleton were deployed in support of the government in Corinto beginning on August 6, 1912. Some 132 individuals were killed during a rebel bombardment of Managua on August 11-14, 1912. US troops killed 68 rebels near Masaya on September 19-20, 1912. General Mena surrendered to US troops on September 25, 1912. US troops clashed with Liberal rebels in Masaya on October 4, 1912, resulting in the deaths of four US soldiers and 60 rebels. US troops took control of Leon on October 6, 1912, resulting in the deaths of three US soldiers. The CACJ conciliation commission issued a report on October 6, 1912, which accused the Nicaraguan government of disregarding the commission’s attempts to mediate negotiations. Government troops suppressed the rebellion on October 9, 1912. Some 2,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(246-1390) Post-Conflict Phase (October 10, 1912-October 24, 1925): Adolfo Diaz of the Conservative faction was elected president on November 2, 1912, and he was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1913. US personnel supervised the election. The Liberal faction boycotted the presidential election. Most of the US troops were withdrawn from the country on January 9, 1913, although some 100 troops commanded by Captain Edward Greene remained to guard the US legation in Managua. General Emiliano Chamorro of the Conservative faction was elected president without opposition in October 1916, and he was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1917. Five individuals were killed in election-related violence. Diego Manuel Chamorro of the Conservative faction was elected president on October 4, 1920, and he was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1921. The Liberal faction claimed election fraud. US troops and government police clashed in December 1921, resulting in the deaths of five government policemen and one US soldier. Some 150 US troops were deployed to reinforce the legation guard in Managua between January 25 and February 11, 1922. Government police arrested some 40 individuals for plotting against the government in April 1922. Congressional and municipal elections were held in 1922, and the Conservative faction won a majority of seats in the Congress and municipal councils. President Chamorro died on October 12, 1923, and Vice-President Bartolome Martinez assumed the presidency on October 13, 1923. Carlos Solorzano of the Conservative faction was elected president and Juan Bautista Sacasa of the Liberal faction was elected vice-president on October 5, 1924. Carlos Solorzano was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1925. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Solorzano on January 7, 1925. US troops were withdrawn from Nicaragua on August 5, 1925. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between October 1912 and October 1925.

(246-1391) Conflict Phase (October 25, 1925-December 31, 1932): General Emiliano Chamorro led a Conservative rebellion against the government at Fort Loma near Managua beginning on October 25, 1925. Government police and Conservative rebels clashed in Managua on October 25, 1925, resulting in the deaths of two government policemen and 15 rebels. President Solorzano appointed General Chamorro as commander-in-chief of the military, and dismissed Liberal members of the cabinet on October 26, 1925. Vice-President Sacasa fled the country in November 1925. Congress impeached Vice-President Sacasa on January 12, 1926. President Solorzano resigned on January 16, 1926, and General Chamorro temporarily assumed control of the government on January 17, 1926. Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and the US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of General Chamorro on January 17, 1926. General Agustino Cesar Sandino of the Liberal faction began a rebellion against the government of General Chamorro in Bluefields on May 2, 1926. The Congress declared the country to be in a state-of-war on May 4, 1926.  US peacekeeping troops commanded by Lt. Charles Finch were deployed to maintain a neutral zone in Bluefields from May 7 to June 5, 1926. Nicaragua accused Mexico of providing military assistance to the rebels on August 17, 1926 (Mexico provided military assistance to the rebels beginning in February 1926). Nicaragua referred the matter to the League of Nations (LON) secretary-general on August 27, 1926, and the LON secretary-general sent a fact-finding mission to Nicaragua. Mexico denied the accusation on August 30, 1926. Some 5,365 US peacekeeping troops commanded by General Logan Feland were deployed to maintain neutral zones in Bluefields and Corinto between August 27 and October 27, 1926. The US government deployed 14 warships and 465 naval personnel to the region. The US government facilitated negotiations between representatives of the Conservative and Liberal factions beginning on September 12, 1926, and the factions agreed to a ceasefire on September 23, 1926. President Calvin Coolidge of the US imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the government and Liberal rebels on September 15, 1926. [Note: these military sanctions are intermediary since they were imposed against both the government and rebels.] Government troops and Liberal rebels clashed near Sonata on October 15, 1926, resulting in the deaths of 17 rebels. Lawrence Dennis of the US facilitated negotiations between Conservative and Liberal representatives in Corinto on October 16-24, 1926. General Chamorro resigned as president on October 30, 1926, and Sebastian Uriza was appointed as provisional president. Government troops and Liberal rebels resumed military hostilities on October 30, 1926. Adolfo Diaz of the Conservative faction was elected provisional president by the Nicaraguan Congress on November 11, 1926, and he was inaugurated as president on November 14, 1926. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Diaz on November 17, 1926. Former Vice-President Sacasa of the Liberal faction opposed the government of President Diaz, and he established a rebel government in Puerto Cabezas on December 2, 1926. Mexico provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the rebel government on December 7, 1926, and continued to provide military assistance to the rebels. General Chamorro resigned as commander-in-chief of the military on December 8, 1926. Guatemala offered to mediate negotiations between the parties on December 8, 1926, but the government rejected the mediation offer on December 19, 1926. President Diaz requested military assistance from the US on December 23, 1926, and US peacekeeping troops established neutral zones in Rio Grande Bar and Puerto Cabezas beginning on December 23, 1926. The US lifted military sanctions against the government on January 5, 1927. The US established additional neutral zones in Rama and Corinto on January 10-24, 1927.  Costa Rica and Guatemala offered to mediate negotiations between the parties on January 16, 1927, but the government rejected the mediation offer on January 22, 1927. Government troops and Liberal rebels clashed near Chinandega in February 1927, resulting in the deaths or wounding of some 1,000 individuals. The US deployed some 1,600 troops in support of the government in Corinto on March 7, 1927. Government troops and Liberal rebels clashed near San Geronimo on March 14, 1927, resulting in the deaths of some 130 individuals. President Calvin Coolidge of the US appointed Henry Stimson as special representative to Nicaragua on March 31, 1927.  US troops were attacked by rebel troops near La Paz on May 1, 1927, resulting in the deaths of two US soldiers. Henry Stimson facilitated the signing of a ceasefire agreement on May 12, 1927, but 200 Liberal rebels commanded by General Sandino did not abide by the ceasefire agreement. On May 15, 1927, President Diaz asked the US government to supervise the upcoming presidential elections, and President Coolidge agreed to the request on June 10, 1927. Some 300 rebel troops attacked US troops in La Paz on May 16, 1927, resulting in the deaths of two US soldiers and 14 rebels. Some 400 rebels led by General Sandino attacked government troops and US troops in El Ocotal on July 16, 1927, resulting in the deaths of some 60 rebels and one US soldier.  US troops attacked rebels near San Fernando on July 25, 1927, resulting in the deaths of eleven rebels.  US troops were largely withdrawn from the country on August 27, 1927, except for 1,200 troops commanded by Colonel L. M. Gulick.  US troops and rebel troops clashed near Telpaneca on September 19, 1927, resulting in the deaths of two US S soldiers and 25 rebels. Municipal elections were held on November 6, 1927.  US government observers observed the municipal elections.  US troops were attacked by rebel troops between Matagalpa and Quilali on December 30, 1927, resulting in the deaths of five US soldiers and two Nicaraguan government soldier. The US deployed some 5,800 troops in support of the government beginning on January 3, 1928. The Nicaraguan Supreme Court appointed General Frank McCoy of the US as chairman of the National Board of Elections on March 17, 1928.  General McCoy established the US Electoral Mission to Nicaragua, which consisted of 352 US chairmen of the electoral precincts and 2,500 US soldiers, to supervise and provide security for the presidential election process between March 28, 1928 and December 15, 1928.  US troops and Liberal rebels clashed on May 13, 1928, resulting in the deaths of two US soldiers. Government troops, US troops, and Liberal rebels clashed on July 16-26, 1928, resulting in the deaths of some 300 rebels.  More than 1,000 Liberal rebels took advantage of an amnesty offer between August and December 1928. General Jose Maria Moncada of the Liberal faction was elected president on November 4, 1928, and he was inaugurated as president on January 1, 1929. General Sandino and 25 rebels fled to Mexico on June 29, 1929, but he returned to the country in May 1930. Government troops and Liberal rebels clashed on several occasions between January 1 and September 15, 1930, resulting in the deaths of some 125 individuals. Congressional elections were held on November 2, 1930, and the Liberal faction won a majority of the votes. Captain A. W. Johnson of the US, chairman of the National Board of Elections, and 649 US military personnel supervised the congressional elections from May 12 to November 2, 1930. Eight US soldiers were killed by rebels in Ocotal in February 1931.  General Sandino resumed military hostilities against the government on January 17, 1931. Municipal elections were held in November 1931. Major Charles Price of the US observed the election process from July to November 1931. Juan Sacasa of the Liberal faction was elected president and Rodolfo Espinoza was elected vice-president on November 6, 1932, and they were inaugurated on January 1, 1933. Admiral Clark Howell Woodward of the US, chairman of the National Board of Elections, and 400 personnel supervised the presidential elections beginning in June 1932. Government troops suppressed General Sandino’s rebellion against the government in December 1932. Some 3,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(246-1392) Post-Conflict Phase (January 1, 1933-June 2, 1936): US troops completed their withdrawal from Nicaragua on January 3, 1933. General Sandino signed a peace agreement with representatives of the Conservative and Liberal factions in Managua on February 3, 1933. Mexico provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on February 4, 1933. President Sacasa was deposed in a military coup led by General Anastasio Somoza on June 2, 1936, and Brenes Jarquin was appointed as provisional president on June 9, 1936. General Somoza of the Liberal Party (Partido Liberal - PL) was elected president on December 8, 1936. The Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution on March 23, 1939.

(246-1393) Post-Crisis Phase (March 24, 1939-May 25, 1947): Leonardo Arguella of the PL was elected president on February 2, 1947, and he was inaugurated as president on May 1, 1947. The opposition political candidate claimed election fraud.

(246-1394) Crisis Phase (May 25, 1947-October 11, 1977): President Arguella was deposed in a military coup led by General Somoza on May 26, 1947, and Benjamin Lescayo Sacasa was appointed as provisional president on May 27, 1947. El Salvador, Guatemala, and Panama imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government on June 3, 1947. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government on June 5, 1947. Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Mexico imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government on June 7, 1947. President Lescayo Sacasa dissolved the parliament on June 10, 1947. Victor Romain Reyes was elected president in September 1947. The National Assembly approved a new constitution on January 23, 1948, which outlawed the communist party. General Emiliano Chamorro, leader of the Conservative Party (CP), announced the formation of a campaign on December 4, 1949, which would promote the holding of free elections supervised by the Organization of American States (OAS). President Reyes died on May 6, 1950, and General Somoza was elected provisional president by the Congress by May 21, 1950. The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government on April 23, 1954. President Somoza was assassinated on September 29, 1956, and Luis Somoza Debayle took control of the government on September 30, 1956. President Luis Somoza Debayle declared a state-of-siege on September 30, 1956. President Luis Somoza Debayle of the PL was re-elected in May 1957. The government suppressed a military rebellion led by General Ramon Raudales in northern Nicaragua on September 30-October 17, 1958. Some 110 Nicaraguan rebels invaded Nicaragua from Punta Llorona, Costa Rica on May 31, 1959. Nicaragua referred the matter to the OAS Council on June 2, 1959. On June 4, 1959, the OAS Council established a four-member commission of inquiry (Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, US) to investigate the dispute. The OAS commission of inquiry, which was chaired by Julio Lacarte of Uruguay, issued a report on July 16, 1959. The report indicated that the exile invasion was organized in Costa Rica, but without the knowledge of the Costa Rican government. Some 90 individuals were killed during the rebel invasion. Nine individuals were killed during a student demonstration in Leon on July 23, 1959. Government troops killed seven rebels near the Honduran border on February 29, 1960. Government troops and rebel troops clashed near the Costa Rican border on November 9-13, 1960. The Nicaraguan government requested military assistance. US warships were deployed in the Caribbean in support of the government from November 17 to December 7, 1960. President Luis Somoza Debayle rejected a demand by the CP in December 1960 that he request OAS supervision of the 1963 elections.  The Sandinista Front for National Liberation (FSLN) was established by Carlos Fonseca Amador, Silvio Mayorga, and Tomas Borge Martinez in opposition to the government on July 23, 1961. The Soviet Union, Cuba, Libya, and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) provided military assistance to the FSLN. Rene Schick Gutierrez of the PL was elected president on February 3, 1963, and he was inaugurated as president on May 1, 1963. The OAS sent three observers to monitor the presidential election. Four individuals were killed in election-related violence. President Schick Gutierrez died on August 3, 1966, and Lorenzo Guerrero Gutierrez was elected as provisional president by the Congress on August 4, 1966. Government troops suppressed anti-government demonstrations in Managua on January 22, 1967, resulting in the deaths of some 40 demonstrators and three government soldiers. Msgr. Dante Portalupi, the papal nuncio, mediated a ceasefire agreement between the parties on January 23, 1967.  General Anastasio Somoza Debayle was elected president on February 5, 1967, and he was inaugurated as president on June 1, 1967. President Anastasio Somoza Debayle dissolved the Congress, and abrogated the constitution on August 31, 1971. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on February 6, 1972, and the National Liberation Party (Partido Liberacion National - PLN) headed by President Somoza Debayle won 60 out of 100 seats in the assembly. The OAS sent 12 observers to monitor the elections. President Somoza Debayle resigned on May 1, 1972, and a three-member council (General Robert Martinez Lacayo, Alfonso Lobo Cordero, and Fernando Aguero Rocha) took control of the government on May 2, 1972. Parliamentary elections were held on September 1, 1974. General Somoza Debayle was elected president on September 1, 1974, and he was inaugurated as president on December 1, 1974. FSLN rebels took 13 hostages in Managua on December 27, 1974. President Somoza Debayle declared martial law on December 28, 1974. The FSLN split into three factions following the death of Carlos Fonseca Amador on November 7, 1976: the Proletarios, the Guerra Popular Prolongada, and the Terceristas. President Somoza Debayle lifted martial law on September 19, 1977.  Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(246-1395) Conflict Phase (October 12, 1977-July 20, 1979): FSLN rebels launched a military offensive against government troops on October 12, 1977. Pedro Joaquin Chamorro Cardenal, editor of the newspaper La Prensa, was assassinated on January 10, 1978. Municipal elections were held on February 5, 1978. Government troops clashed with demonstrators in Masaya on February 22-23, 1972, resulting in the deaths of eight individuals. Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Masaya and Diriamba on February 26, 1972, resulting in the deaths of ten individuals. Eden Pastora (Commandante Cero) and 25 FSLN rebels seized the National Palace and took some 1,500 hostages in Managua on August 22, 1978. The hostages were released a couple days later after the government paid a ransom to the rebels. FSLN rebels attacked the town of Penas Blancas from bases in Costa Rica on September 10, 1978. President Somoza Debayle declared a state-of-emergency on September 11, 1978. Government military aircraft and troops attacked FSLN bases in Costa Rica from September 12 to November 21, 1978.  The US mobilized naval ships in the area between September 20, 1978 and October 1, 1978.  The OAS Council established a three-member conciliation commission (Dominican Republic, Guatemala, US), which attempted to mediate a resolution of the dispute from October 5, 1978 to January 15, 1979. The OAS Inter-American Commission on Human Rights sent a six-member fact-finding commission to Nicaragua on October 3, 1978. The OAS IACHR issued a report on November 17, 1978, which suggested that the Nicaragua government had violated human rights in a "grave, persistent, and generalized manner." On December 15, 1978, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly condemned the government for human rights violations. FSLN factions united and formed a nine-member directorate in January 1979. FSLN rebels killed 55 government soldiers in northern Nicaragua on January 3-5, 1979. The US imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government on February 8, 1979. The three factions of the FSLN re-united and formed a nine-member directorate on March 7, 1979. FSLN rebels launched a military offensive against government troops on May 28, 1979, and President Somoza Debayle declared a state-of-siege on June 6, 1979. On June 23, 1979, the OAS Council called for the "immediate and definite replacement" of the Somoza government. President Somoza Debayle resigned on July 17, 1979, and Sandinista rebels took control of Managua on July 19, 1979. A five-member junta, including Daniel Ortega Saavedra and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, took control of the government on July 20, 1979. Some 40,000 individuals were killed during the conflict, and some 500,000 individuals were displaced during the conflict.

(246-1396) Post-Conflict Phase (July 20, 1979-August 10, 1981): President Somoza Debayle resigned on July 17, 1979, and a five-member junta, including Daniel Ortega Saavedra and Violeta Chamorro de Barrios, took control of the government on July 20, 1979. The Sandinista government declared a state-of-emergency on July 24, 1979. The World Bank (WB) provided reconstruction assistance (urban reconstruction and industrial rehabilitation credit) to the government between January 4, 1980 and March 31, 1984.  Cuba provided military assistance (2,000 military advisors) in support of the Sandinista government beginning in 1980. The Soviet Union provided economic assistance to the Sandinista government beginning in 1980. The US imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the Sandinista government on January 19, 1981 (the US terminated economic assistance on April 1, 1981).

(246-1397) Conflict Phase (August 11, 1981-April 1, 1988): The Nicaraguan Democratic Forces (FDN), headed by Colonel Enrique Bermudez Varela, was established in opposition to the Sandinista government on August 11, 1981. Argentina, Honduras, and the US provided military assistance to FDN rebels beginning in November 1981. The Sandinista government declared a state-of-emergency on March 15, 1982. The US mobilized naval ships and some 100 troops in the area as a show of force against the Sandinista government between June 14, 1983 and September 15, 1983.  Peace Brigades International (PBI) established a mission consisting of 10 personnel to deter military hostilities in Jalapa, Nicaragua in September 1983. The US ended military assistance to FDN rebels in May 1984. Saudi Arabia agreed to provide $12 million annually in military assistance to FDN rebels. The Soviet Union provided military assistance (weapons and ammunition) to the Sandinista government beginning in 1984. Parliamentary elections were held on November 4, 1984, and the Sandinista National Liberation Front (SNLF) won 61 out of 96 seats in the National Assembly. Daniel Ortega of the SNLF was elected president with 67 percent of the vote on November 4, 1984. The US imposed economic sanctions (trade embargo) against the Sandinista government on May 1, 1985. The US provided military assistance to FDN rebels between June 1986 and February 1988.  The government lifted the state-of-emergency on January 19, 1988.  Government and FDN representatives signed a ceasefire agreement on March 23, 1988, and a ceasefire formally went into effect on April 1, 1988. Some 30,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(246-1398) Post-Conflict Phase (April 2, 1988-January 10, 1997):  The government imposed a state-of-emergency from October 20 to November 15, 1988.  On March 3, 1989, the government invited the Organization of American States (OAS) and the UN to monitor the upcoming presidential election. On August 25, 1989, the UN and OAS jointly established the International Commission for Support and Verification (CIAV) to facilitate the demobilization and resettlement of Contra rebels in Nicaragua.  On July 27, 1989, the UN Security Council authorized the establishment of the United Nations Observer Mission to Verify the Electoral Process in Nicaragua (ONUVEN).  ONUVEN, which consisted of 237 election observers and 34 staff personnel headed by Elliott Richardson of the US, monitored the election process between August 25, 1989 and February 28, 1990.  On April 20, 1990, the UN Security Council expanded the mandate of the United Nations Observers Group in Central America (ONUCA) to monitor the ceasefire agreement and verify the disarmament/demobilization process in Nicaragua.  ONUCA-Nicaragua consisted of 800 peacekeeping troops and 260 military observers from 11 countries commanded by Major-General Agustin Quesada Gomez of Spain.  Violetta Chamorro of the National Opposition Union (UNO) was elected president with 55 percent of the vote on February 25, 1990.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 25, 1990, and the UNO won 52 out of 91 seats in the National Assembly. The OAS sent 433 observers to monitor the election process from August 4, 1989 to March 20, 1990. The Carter Center/Council of Freely Elected Heads of Government (CC/CFEHG) sent 78 observers to monitored the presidential election.  The Center for Democracy (CFD) sent 20 observers to monitor the elections.  The US lifted economic sanctions against the government on March 13, 1990. CIAV-UN was disbanded on June 30, 1990, and ONUCA-Nicaragua completed its mission on July 5, 1990.  The World Bank (WB) provided reconstruction assistance (economic recovery credits and social investment funds) to the government between September 26, 1991 and December 13, 1997.  Government troops clashed with Re-Contras (former Contra rebels) in northern Nicaragua between December 22, 1992 and January 18, 1993, resulting in the deaths of 36 individuals.  Government troops clashed with Recompas (former Sandinista soldiers) in northern Nicaragua on July 21-22, 1993, resulting in the deaths of 45 individuals. Some 1,500 individuals were killed in political violence between 1990 and 1994. Parliamentary elections were held on October 20, 1996, and the LA won 42 out of 93 seats in the National Assembly. The FSLN won 36 seats in the National Assembly. Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo of the Liberal Constitutionalist Party (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista - PLC) and Nicaraguan Liberal Alliance (Alianza Liberal Nicaraguense - ALN)  was elected president with 51 percent of the vote on October 20, 1996, and he was inaugurated as president on January 10, 1997. Daniel Ortega of the FSLN claimed election irregularities. The OAS sent 98 observers to monitor the election process from April 16 to October 31, 1996, and the OAS mission reported that the elections had been free and fair. The European Union (EU) sent 81 observers to monitor the elections. The Carter Center (CC) sent 47 observers headed by Jimmy Carter of the US and Oscar Arias of Costa Rica to monitor the elections beginning on October 17, 1996, and the CC mission issued a statement on the elections on December 6, 1996. The National Democratic Institute (NDI), International Republican Institute (IRI), and the International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) sent observers to monitor the elections. The Center for Democracy (CFD) sent 20 observers to monitor the elections. Some 1,500 individuals were killed in political violence between April 1988 and January 1997.

(246-1399) Post-Crisis Phase (January 11, 1997-present): CIAV-OAS was disbanded on June 30, 1997. The EU sent a fact-finding mission to investigate political conditions on June 24-July 7, 2001. Parliamentary elections were held on November 4, 2001, and the PLC won 47 out of 90 seats in the National Assembly. The FSLN won 43 seats in the National Assembly. Enrique Bolanos Geyer of the PLC was elected president with 56 percent of the vote on November 4, 2001. The EU sent six election experts, eight long-term observers, and 108 short-term observers headed by Jannis Sakellariou of Germany to monitor the elections from September 25 to November 22, 2001. The OAS sent 78 observers headed by Santiago Murray of Argentina to monitor the elections beginning in August 2001. The CC sent observers headed by Jimmy Carter of the US and Oscar Arias of Costa Rica to monitor the elections.  Daniel Ortega of the FSLN was elected president with 38 percent of the vote on November 5, 2006.  Parliamentary elections were held on November 5, 2006, and the FSLN won 38 out of 92 seats in the National Assembly.  The PLC won 25 seats, and the ALN won 23 seats in the National Assembly.  The OAS sent 183 observers headed by Gustava Fernandez Saavedra of Bolivia to monitor the elections.  The European Union (EU) sent 150 observers headed by Claudio Fava of Italy to monitor the elections from September 23 to November 6, 2006.  The Carter Center (CC) sent 62 observers to monitor the elections from September 8 to November 14, 2006.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), November 5, 2001; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 731-735, 805-810; Beigbeder, 1994, 164-169, 232-234; Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 495-496, 518-520; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), September 9, 2005, October 11, 2005; Brogan, 1992, 472-495; Buell, 1930a, 315-343, 1930b, 385-402; Carter Center (CC) press release, December 6, 1996, September 24, 2001, November 1, 2001; Clodfelter, 1992, 691-692, 1169-1173, 1178-1179; Dodd 1992; Dodds, 1929, 488-496; Ellsworth, 1974, 120-133; European Report, September 26, 2001, 512, October 27, 2001, 512; European Union (EU) statement, November 6, 2006; Facts on File, April 27-May 3, 1947, May 25-31, 1947, June 1-7, 1947, June 8, 1947, January 18-24, 1948, February 14-20, 1963, August 18-24, 1966, January 26-February 1, 1967, February 13-19, 1972, April 30-May 6, 1972, September 7, 1974, October 22, 1977, March 3, 1978, November 3, 1978, December 31, 1978, January 5, 1979, June 8, 1979, July 20, 1979, November 8, 2001; Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), October 16, 1978, October 27, 1978, December 6, 1978; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1909, 452-459, 1910, 738-767, 1911, 648-671, 1912, 1012-1071, 1926 (vol.II), 780-823, 1927 (vol.III), 285-350, 1928 (vol. III), 418-522; Hispanic American Report (HAR), January 1950, September 1956, October 1958, June 1959, August 1959, February 1960; Jessup, 1998, 525-527; Keesing's Record of World Events, March 15-22, 1947, May 31-June 7, 1947, August 5-12, 1950, July 4-11, 1959, December 3-10, 1960, April 1-8, 1967, October 23-30, 1971, March 25-April 1, 1972, May 13-20, 1972, October 14-20, 1974, February 24-March 2, 1975, January 27, 1978, June 9, 1978, October 16, 1978, October 27, 1978, December 6, 1978, December 29, 1978, September 7, 1979, January 4, 1980, June 27, 1980, July 17, 1981, August 1983, December 1984, February 1990, January 1993, July 1993, October 1996, November 1996, January 1997; Langer, 1972, 858, 1068, 1243; Marley, 1998, 640-642; Munro, 1933, 696-705; Munro, 1934, 227-273; Munro, 1964, 160-216, 388-425; Munro, 1974, 157-254; Musicant, 1990, 137-156; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, November 4, 2001, November 6, 2006, November 22, 2006; Radu and Tismaneanu, 1990, 291-305; Scheina, 2003, 55-72; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1926, 541-542, 1927, 479-516, 1928, 470, 1930, 397-406, 570, 1933, 596, 1936, 954; Tillema, 1991, 29-32; UN Chronicle, September 1990; Weisburd 1997, 227-232; Wright, 1964, 35-68.]

(247-1401) Crisis Phase (February 4, 1914-January 18, 1920): President Billinghurst was overthrown in a military rebellion led by Colonel Oscar Benavides on February 4, 1914. Colonel Benavides was appointed as provisional president on February 5, 1914. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Benavides on February 12, 1914. Jose Pardo Barreda, representing the Civilista, Liberal, and Constitutionalist parties, was elected as president by the Congress in August 1915. Augusto Bernardo Leguia Salcedo was elected president on May 18, 1919, but the government attempted to nullify the result of the election. Workers and students organized a general strike beginning on May 27, 1919. Government troops suppressed the strike in June 1919, resulting in the arrests of some 3,000 workers. President Pardo was overthrown in a military rebellion on July 4, 1919, and Augusto B. Leguia Salcedo was installed as provisional president on July 5, 1919. Two government soldiers were killed during the rebellion. President Leguia Salcedo dissolved the Congress on August 24, 1919. Augusto B. Leguia Salcedo was inaugurated as president on October 12, 1919. A new constitution was approved by the Constituent Assembly on December 27, 1919, and the constitution went into effect on January 18, 1920. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(247-1402) Post-Crisis Phase (January 19, 1920-August 21, 1930): Government police fired on anti-government demonstrators near San Marcos University in Lima on May 23, 1923, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. Government troops suppressed demonstrations in Lima on May 24, 1923. Victor Raul Haya de la Torre, a student leader at San Marcos University, was arrested by government police in October 1923, and he was exiled to Panama on October 9, 1923. The American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana - APRA) was established by Victor Raul Haya de la Torre in opposition to the government of President Leguia Salcedo on May 7, 1924. President Leguia Salcedo, representing the Democratic Reform Party (DRP), was re-elected without opposition in November 1924. The Peruvian Socialist Party (PSP) was established by Jose Carlos Mariategui in September 1928. President Leguia Salcedo was re-elected without opposition in 1929, and he was inaugurated for a fourth term on October 12, 1929. Jose Carlos Mariategui died of an illness on April 16, 1930.

(247-1403) Crisis Phase (August 22, 1930-July 28, 1945): Lt. Colonel Luis Miguel Sanchez Cerro led a military rebellion against the government in Arequipa beginning on August 22, 1930. President Leguia Salcedo resigned on August 24, 1930, and a military junta headed by Lt. Colonel Sanchez Cerro took control of the government on August 27, 1930. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the military junta on August 28, 1930. Lt. Colonel Sanchez Cerro resigned as president on March 1, 1931, and David Samanez Ocampo was appointed as provisional president on March 2, 1931. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Samanez Ocampo on March 5, 1931. Former President Luis Miguel Sanchez Cerro returned from exile on July 3, 1931, and Victor Raul Haya de la Torre returned from exile on July 12, 1931. Luis Miguel Sanchez Cerro of the Revolutionary Union (UR) was elected president on October 11, 1931, and he was inaugurated as president on December 8, 1931. Victor Raul Haya de la Torre, presidential candidate of the APRA, claimed election fraud. The government discovered an APRA plot against the government in February 1932, and the government ordered the arrest of Victor Raul Haya de la Torre on March 5, 1932. A member of APRA unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate President Sanchez Cerro in Miraflores on March 6, 1932. Government police captured Victor Raul Haya de la Torre on May 6, 1932. Government troops suppressed a naval rebellion in Callao on May 7-8, 1932, and eight individuals were executed for their involvement in the rebellion. Members of the APRA led by Manuel Barreta rebelled against the government in Trujillo on July 7, 1932. APRA rebels killed 60 individuals in Trujillo on July 10, 1932. Government troops suppressed the rebellion on July 17, 1932, resulting in the deaths of some 1,500 individuals. Government troops suppressed an APRA rebellion led by Lt. Colonel Gustavo Jiminez near Malabrigo on March 11-14, 1933. The Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution on March 29, 1933, which prohibited the immediate re-election of a president. The new constitution went into effect on April 9, 1933. President Sanchez was assassinated by a member of the APRA near Lima on April 30, 1933, and General Oscar Benavides was appointed as president by the National Assembly on May 1, 1933. The government released Victor Raul Haya de la Torre from prison on August 10, 1933. Members of the APRA led by Colonel Cesar Pardo rebelled against the government beginning on November 26, 1934, but government troops suppressed the rebellion on November 30, 1934. President Benavides nullified the results of a presidential election held on October 11, 1936, and dissolved the Constituent Assembly on December 8, 1936. President Sanchez issued a law that banned some opposition groups on February 21, 1937. Manuel Prado Ugarteche was elected president on October 22, 1939, and he was inaugurated as president on December 8, 1939. The National Democratic Front (Frente Democratico Nacional - FDN) was established by 26 center-left political leaders in Arequipa on June 3, 1944. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Sgt. Claudio Lopez Lavalle in Ancon on March 18, 1945. The government legalized APRA on May 15, 1945. Parliamentary elections were held on June 10, 1945, and the FDN won 73 out of 101 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Jose Luis Bustamente Rivero of the FDN was elected president with the support of APRA on June 10, 1945, and he was inaugurated as president on July 28, 1945. Some 2,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(247-1404) Post-Crisis Phase (July 29, 1945-January 6, 1947): Communists and APRA supporters clashed in Lima in December 1945, resulting in the deaths of two individuals.

(247-1405) Crisis Phase (January 7, 1947-March 14, 1956): Francisco Grana Garland, associate editor of La Prensa, was assassinated on January 7, 1947, and two Apristas were arrested for their involvement in the assassination in June 1947. APRA leaders called a general strike in Lima and Callao beginning on August 28, 1947, and President Bustamente Rivero suspended civil liberties for thirty days on September 1, 1947. Rear-Admiral Roque Saldias formed a government as prime minister on February 28, 1948. General Armando Revoredo formed a government as prime minister on June 17, 1948. Government troops suppressed a right-wing rebellion led by Lt. Colonel Alfonzo Llosa on July 5-7, 1948. The government declared a state-of-siege on July 5, 1948. Government troops suppressed a naval rebellion led by APRA leaders in Lima and Callao on October 3-4, 1948, resulting in the deaths of some 250 rebels and 60 government soldiers. President Bustamante Rivero outlawed the APRA on October 4, 1948, and some 800 naval personnel were arrested for their involvement in the naval rebellion. General Manuel Odria led a military rebellion against the government in Arequipa beginning on October 27, 1948. President Bustamante Rivero was deposed in a military coup on October 29, 1948, and a military junta headed by General Manuel Odria took control of the government on October 30, 1948. The military junta banned the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana - APRA) and Communist Party of Peru (Partido Communista de Bolivia - PCP) on November 2, 1948. Victor Raul Haya de la Torre, leader of APRA, sought refuge in the Colombian embassy in Lima on January 3, 1949. Government troops suppressed a rebellion in Arequipa on June 12-14, 1950, resulting in the deaths of some 30 individuals. General Odria of the Democratic Union Party (Partido Union Democratica - PUD) was elected president without opposition on July 2, 1950. The US agreed to provide military assistance to the military government on February 22, 1952. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by General Zenon Noriega in Lima on August 10, 1954. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by General Marciano Merino Pereira in Iquilas on February 16-25, 1956. President Odria declared a state-of-siege on February 16, 1956, but lifted the state-of-siege on March 14, 1956. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(247-1406) Post-Crisis Phase (March 15, 1956-July 17, 1962): Manuel Prado Ugarteche of the Pradista Democratic Movement (Movimiento Democratico Pradista - MDP) was elected president on on June 16, 1956, and he was inaugurated as president on July 28, 1956. Victor Raul Haya de la Torre returned to Peru from exile in Mexico on July 20, 1957. Prime Minister Manuel Cisneros Sanchez resigned on May 30, 1958. Prime Minister Luis Gallo Porras resigned on July 5, 1959. Pedro Beltran formed a government as prime minister on July 20, 1959. Four individuals were killed in political violence in Huancayo on May 13, 1961. Parliamentary elections were held on June 10, 1962, and APRA won 114 seats in the Congress. Victor Raul Haya de la Torre of the APRA won a plurality of the vote in presidential elections on June 10, 1962. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between March 1956 and July 1962.

(247-1407) Crisis Phase (July 18, 1962-September 24, 1965): President Prado Ugarteche was deposed in a military coup, and a four-member military junta headed by Major General Ricardo Perez Godoy took control of the government on July 18, 1962. The military junta annulled the results of the recent presidential and congressional elections, dissolved the parliament, and suspended the constitution on July 18, 1962. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government of Major General Perez Godoy on July 18, 1962, and the US imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) and economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government on July 20, 1962. Nine Latin American countries, including Venezuela, Colombia, Costa Rica, and the Dominican Republic, imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the military junta on July 18, 1962. Venezuela, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, and Honduras referred the matter to the Organization of American States (OAS) Council on July 27, 1962, but Peru argued that the OAS should not interfere in its domestic affairs. The OAS Council voted against holding a meeting to discuss the matter on August 10, 1962. Paraguay provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on August 14, 1962. The US lifted diplomatic sanctions against the government on August 17, 1962, and lifted military sanctions against the government in October 1962. Four individuals were killed in political violence in Lima and Chiclayo on January 2-4, 1963, and the government declared a state-of-siege on January 5, 1963. Major Perez Godoy was overthrown as head of the military junta on March 3, 1963, and General Nicholas Lindley Lopez became provisional president on March 4, 1963. Congressional elections were held on June 9, 1963, and the APRA won 58 out of 140 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Popular Action Party (Partido Accion Popular - PAP)/Christian Democratic Party - (Partido Democrata Cristiana - PDC) coalition won 50 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Fernando Belaunde Terry of the PAP/PDC coalition was elected president on June 9, 1963, and he was inaugurated as president on July 28, 1963. Oscar Trelles Montes of the PAP formed a government as prime minister on July 28, 1963. Venezuela lifted diplomatic sanctions against the government on July 29, 1963. Municipal elections were held on December 15, 1963, and the PAP/PDC coalition won 51 percent of the vote. The APRA/Union Nacional Odriista (UNO) coalition won 48 percent of the vote. Prime Minister Trelles resigned on December 31, 1963, and Fernando Schwalb was appointed as prime minister on January 1, 1964. Prime Minister Schwalb resigned on September 13, 1965, and Daniel Becerra de la Flor formed a government as prime minister on September 15, 1965. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(247-1408) Conflict Phase (September 25, 1965-January 31, 1966): The National Liberation Army (Ejercito de Liberacion Nacional - ELN) headed by Hector Bejar Rivera rebelled against the government beginning on September 25, 1965. Cuba provided military assistance to the ELN. Government troops suppressed the ELN rebellion in January 1966. Some 8,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(247-1409) Post-Conflict Phase (February 1, 1966-July 28, 1980): Edgardo Seoane Corrales, secretary-general of the PAP, formed a government as prime minister on September 8, 1967. Raul Ferrero Rebagliati formed a government as prime minister on November 17, 1967. Osvaldo Hercelles formed a government as prime minister on May 31, 1968. Miguel Mujica Gallo formed a government as prime minister on October 2, 1968. President Belaunda Terry was deposed in a military coup led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado on October 3, 1968. A military junta headed by General Velasco Alvarado took control of the government and dissolved the Congress on October 4, 1968. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the military junta on October 7, 1968, but the US lifted diplomatic sanctions against the military junta on October 25, 1968. General Velasco Alvarado expropriated the property of the International Petroleum Company (IPC) on February 13, 1969. General Ernesto Alfonso Navarro formed a government as prime minister on April 1, 1969. Four individuals were killed in political violence in Puno on June 27-July 3, 1972. The government declared a state-of-siege in Puno on July 3, 1972. General Francisco Morales Bermudez was sworn in as prime minister and minister of war on February 1, 1975. The government declared a state-of-emergency on February 5, 1975, and some 100 individuals were killed in political violence on February 5-10, 1975. The government lifted the state-of-emergency on May 7, 1975. General Velasco Alvarado was deposed in a military coup led by General Francisco Morales Bermudez Cerruti on August 29, 1975, and General Bermudez Cerruti was inaugurated as president on August 30, 1975. On July 1, 1976, the government declared a state-of-emergency following several days of rioting. General Jorge Fernandez Maldonado resigned as prime minister on July 16, 1976, and General Guillermo Arbulu Galliani formed a government as prime minister on July 17, 1976. General Francisco Morales Bermudez lifted the state-of-emergency on August 29, 1977. The government proclaimed a state-of-emergency on April 19, 1978. The government lifted the state-of-emergency on June 9, 1978. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on June 18, 1978. The government imposed martial law on January 6, 1979. The Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution in July 1979. Fernando Belaunda Terry of the PAP was elected president on May 18, 1980, and he was inaugurated as president on July 28, 1980. Terry. Manuel Ulloa Elias formed a government as prime minister on July 28, 1980. Some 500 individuals were killed in political violence between February 1966 and July 1980.

(247-1410) Conflict Phase (July 29, 1980-December 31, 1997): The Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso - SL) headed by Abimael Guzman Reynoso rebelled against the government of President Belaunda. Shining Path rebels killed two civilians in Aycarza on December 24, 1980. Prime Minister Ulloa Elias resigned in December 1982, and Fernando Schwalb Lopez Aldana formed a government as prime minister. President Belaunda Terry declared a state-of-emergency on December 29, 1982. President Belaunda Terry declared a state-of-emergency on May 30, 1983. Shining Path rebels attacked the headquarters of the Popular Action Party (PAP) in Lima on July 11, 1983, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. The Movimento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru (MRTA) was established in opposition to the government on November 6, 1983. Prime Minister Schwalb Lopez Aldana resigned on April 9, 1984, and Sandro Mariategui Chiappe formed a government as prime minister on April 10, 1984. Prime Minister Mariategui Chiappe resigned on October 12, 1984, and Luis Percovich Roca formed a government as prime minister on October 13, 1984. The MRTA headed by Victor Polay Campos ("Rolando") rebelled against the government on September 7, 1984. Parliamentary elections were held on April 14, 1985, and the APRA won 107 out of 180 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Alan Garcia Perez of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) was elected president with 46 percent of the vote on April 14, 1985, and he was inaugurated as president on July 28, 1985. Shining Path rebels killed 14 civilians in Ayacucho on September 27, 1985. MRTA rebels attacked the residence of the US ambassador to Peru on May 16, 1985. The government proclaimed a state-of-emergency on February 7, 1986. The government suppressed a rebellion at three prisons in Lima on June 18-20, 1986, resulting in the deaths of some 270 prisoners. Municipal elections were held in November 1986, and the APRA won 53 percent of the vote. In February 1987, Amnesty International (AI) condemned the government for covering-up the massacre of several dozen of the prisoners during the June 1986 prison rebellions. Prime Minister Luis Alva Castro resigned on June 29, 1987, and Guillermo Larco Cox was appointed prime minister on June 30, 1988. Prime Minister Larco Cox resigned on May 17, 1988, and Armando Villanueva del Campo was appointed prime minister on May 18, 1988. Government police arrested Victor Polay, leader of MRTA, in February 1989. Some 62 individuals, including 42 MRTA rebels and 20 civilians, were killed by government troops on April 28, 1989. Prime Minister Villanueva del Campo resigned on May 7, 1989, and he was replaced by Guillermo Larco Cox on September 30, 1989. General Enrique Lopez Albujar, a former Minister of Defense, was assassinated by Shining Path rebels on January 9, 1990. Alberto Keinya Fujimori of the Change ‘90 Party was elected president with 55 percent of the vote on June 10, 1990. Victor Polay and 46 MRTA rebels escaped from Canto Grande prison in Lima in July 1990. Alberto Fujimori was inaugurated as president on July 28, 1990. President Fujimori appointed Juan Carlos Hurtado Miller as prime minister in August 1990. Some 3,404 individuals were killed in political violence in 1990. Prime Minister Hurtado Miller resigned on February 14, 1991, and he was replaced by Carlos Torres y Torres Lara. The Organization of American States (OAS)/Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) sent a fact-finding mission to investigate human rights conditions in Peru on October 28-31, 1991. Some 3.087 individuals were killed in political violence in 1991. President Fujimori suspended the constitution, and dissolved the Congress on April 5, 1992. The US imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government, and Venezuela imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government. Spain imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government, and Germany imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government. The European Community (EC) condemned President Fujimori’s coup on April 8, 1992. OAS foreign ministers condemned President Fujimori’s coup on April 13, 1992. Government police arrested Victor Polay, leader of the MRTA, on June 10, 1992. Abimael Guzman Reynoso, the commander of the Shining Path, was captured in Lima on September 12, 1992. Oscar Ramirez Durand became commander of the Shining Path in September 1992. The government suppressed a military rebellion on November 13, 1992. Elections for the Democratic Constituent Congress (CCD) were held on November 22, 1992, and the New Majority-Change’90 coalition headed by President Fujimori won 44 out of 80 seats in the CCD. Four opposition political parties, including the APRA and Popular Action (AP), boycotted the election. The OAS sent 228 observers headed by Mario Gonzalez Vargas of Colombia to monitor the election process from October 8 to December 12, 1992. President Fujimori’s party won 44 out of 80 seats in the CCD. The OAS MFM disbanded when the CCD convened in Lima on December 30, 1992. Some 2,893 individuals were killed in political violence in 1992. Municipal elections were held on January 29, 1993. The OAS sent 70 observers to monitor the municipal elections. The OAS observation mission issued a report on May 19, 1993. A referendum on the constitution was held on October 31, 1993, and a new constitution was approved by 52 percent of the vote. The OAS sent 30 observers to monitor the referendum process from October 11 to December 17, 1993. The new constitution was promulgated on December 2, 1993. The OAS mission issued a report on December 29, 1993. Some 1,315 individuals were killed in political violence in 1993, and some 640 individuals were killed in political violence in 1994. Parliamentary elections were held on April 9, 1995, and the New Majority-Change ‘90 coalition won 67 out of 120 seats in the Congress. President Fujimori was re-elected as president with 64 percent of the vote on April 9, 1995. The OAS provided electoral assistance to the Peruvian government beginning on September 1, 1994, and sent 70 observers to monitor the elections beginning on February 7, 1995. The OAS mission issued its final report on May 26, 1995. Some 527 individuals, including 196 civilians, 193 rebels, and 138 government security personnel, were killed in political violence in 1995. On May 13, 1996, Amnesty International (AI) condemned the government for human rights abuses against civilians. MRTA rebels seized and held 72 hostages in the Japanese embassy in Lima on December 17, 1996. Government troops ended the siege on April 22, 1997, resulting in the deaths of some 25 MRTA rebels. On December 11, 1997, Human Rights Watch (HRW) condemned the Peruvian government for human rights abuses against civilians. The European Union (EU) and Oxfam International (OI) provided humanitarian assistance to internally-displaced individuals beginning in September 1997. Government troops largely suppressed the Shining Path and MRTA rebellions in 1997. Some 69,000 individuals were killed, and some 600,000 individuals were displaced during the conflict.

(247-1411) Post-Conflict Phase (January 1, 1998-present): Municipal elections were held on October 11, 1998. The OAS sent 30 observers to monitor the municipal elections from October 1 to October 13, 1998. Some 117 individuals, including 27 government security personnel, 21 rebels, and 69 civilians, were killed in political violence in 1998. Shining Path rebels killed nine civilians in Rio Frio and Tintaypuquio on June 3, 1999, and killed eight civilians in Azul de Magdalena on June 15, 1999. Oscar Ramirez Durand, the commander of the Shining Path, was captured by government troops near Huancayo on July 14, 1999. Government troops and Shining Path rebels clashed near Ayacucho on November 5, 1999, resulting in the deaths of three government soldiers and six rebels. Some 60 individuals were killed in political violence in 1999. The National Democratic Institute (NDI) and the Carter Center (CC) sent four six-member pre-election assessment delegations to Peru between November 28, 1999 and May 5, 2000. Presidential and congressional elections were held on April 9, 2000. The OAS sent 70 observers headed by Eduardo Stein of Guatemala to monitor the elections beginning on March 8, 2000. Alejandro Toledo withdrew from the presidential run-off election on May 22, 2000, which had been scheduled for May 28, 2000. The OAS mission withdrew from the country on May 26, 2000. President Fujimori resigned on November 20, 2000, and Valentin Paniagua was named interim president by the Congress on November 22, 2000. The NDI and CC sent a pre-election assessment mission headed by Ramiro de Leon Carpio of Guatemala on January 18-26, 2001. Shining Path rebels killed one government soldier on February 17, 2001. Congressional elections were held on April 8, 2001, and the Peru Possible (PP) won 41 out of 120 seats in the Congress. The APRA won 29 seats in the Congress. The OAS sent 50 observers headed by Eduardo Stein to monitor the elections. The EU sent six election experts, 12 long-term observers, and 32 short-term observers headed by Eva Zetterberg of Sweden to monitor the elections from February 23 to June 15, 2001. The NDI and CC sent 35 observers led by Jimmy Carter to jointly monitor the elections on April 4 to April 10, 2001. Alejandro Toledo was elected president with 52 percent of the vote in a run-off election on June 3, 2001.  A faction of the Shining Path killed four government police east of Lima on August 7, 2001.  Shining Path rebels killed ten individuals in a bombing Lima on March 20, 2002.  Secretary-General Cesar Gaviria of the OAS condemned the killings on March 21, 2002.  Shining Path rebels killed one government policeman on November 15, 2002. Regional and municipal elections were held on November 17, 2002. The OAS sent some 20 observers headed by Diego Paz Bustamante to monitor the elections.  President Toledo declared a state-of-emergency on May 28, 2003.  Shining Path rebels killed one government soldier in Huanta province on June 25, 2003.  President Toledo lifted the state-of-emergency on June 26, 2003.  Shining Path rebels killed eight government policemen in the Huanuca region on December 22, 2005.  Congressional elections were held on April 9, 2006, and the Union for Peru (Union por el Peru - UP) won 45 out of 120 seats in the Congress.  The Peruvian Aprista Party (Partido Aprista Peruano - PAP) won 36 seats in the Congress.  Alan Garcia Perez of the PAP was elected president with 53 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections on June 4, 2006.  The OAS sent 126 observers headed by Lloyd Axworthy of Canada to monitor the elections from January 19 to June 6, 2006.  Some 250 individuals have been killed in political violence since January 1998.

[Sources: Americas (English edition), March 2001, 53; Associated Press (AP), June 4, 1999, July 14, 1999, July 19, 1999, April 9, 2000, April 13, 2000, May 22, 2000, November 20, 2000, April 7, 2001, June 4, 2001; Banks and Muller, 1998, 723-731; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 615-632; Beigbeder, 1994, 232; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), April 11, 2000, June 5, 2001, March 21, 2002, June 26, 2003, June 4, 2006; Brogan, 1992, 502-509; Butterworth, 1976, 336-337; Cable News Network (CNN), July 14, 1999, April 8, 2001; Carter Center (CC) press release, February 11, 2000, March 9, 2001, April 3, 2001, April 6, 2001; Clodfelter, 1992, 699, 1189-1190; Degenhardt, 1988, 290-292; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1343-1344; European Union (EU) press release, April 6, 2001; Facts on File, July 4-10, 1948, October 3-9, 1948, October 24-30, 1948, November 7-13, 1948, June 9-15, 1950, February 15-21, 1956, March 14-20, 1956, May 18-24, 1961, June 28-July 5, 1962, July 12-18, 1962, January 1-9, 1963, June 20-26, 1963, October 17-23, 1968, July 16-22, 1972, February 15, 1975, September 6, 1975; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1919, 720-740; Gorriti 1999; Gott, 1971, 307-394; Hispanic American Report (HAR), June 1950, July 1950, February 1956, June 1956, July 1956, June 1958, January 1961, June 1962, July 1962, August 1962, June 1963, July 1963, December 1963; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) report, March 12, 1993; Jessup, 1998, 581-584; Keesing's Record of World Events, March 6-13, 1948, June 26-30, 1948, November 6-13, 1948, December 21-31, 1968, August 26-September 2, 1950, September 28-October 5, 1957, April 23-30, 1960, March 23-30, 1963, August 17-24, 1963, December 21-31, 1968, August 29-September 5, 1970, March 3-9, 1975, September 22-28, 1975, October 1, 1976, October 31, 1980, May 1983, December 1983, April 1990, April 1992, November 1992; Langer, 1972, 1063-1064, 1256-1257; Masterson 1991; Munro, 1961, 251- 265; National Democratic Institute (NDI) press release, May 5, 2000; National Democratic Institute/Carter Center (NDI/CC) statement, December 3, 1999, February 11, 2000, March 24, 2000, May 5, 2000, January 26, 2001; New York Times (NYT), May 26, 2000, March 21, 2002, May 28, 2003, August 29, 2003, June 5, 2006; Organization of American States (OAS) press release, February 18, 2000, February 2, 2001, March 21, 2002, November 21, 2002, January 19, 2006, January 27, 2006, April 7, 2006, April 9, 2006, April 10, 2006, May 9, 2006, June 6, 2006; Radu and Tismaneanu, 1990, 307-345; Reuters, February 27, 1996, June 15, 1999, November 5, 1999, April 12, 2000, May 22, 2000, November 22, 2000, April 8, 2001, June 3, 2001, November 15, 2002, June 25, 2003; Robertson, 1943, 313-334; Scheina, 2003, 133-144; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1930, 572, 1933, 597; Werlich 1978.]

(248-1412) Pre-Crisis Phase (January 1, 1913-January 26, 1917): In 1913, a constitutional amendment provided for the direct election of the president and vice-president. Presidential elections were held on December 7, 1913, but no candidate received a majority of the vote. Alfredo Gonzales Flores was elected president by the Congress on May 1, 1914.

(248-1413) Crisis Phase (January 27, 1917-May 8, 1920): President Gonzales Flores was deposed in a military rebellion (golpe de cuartel) led by Minister of War Frederico Tinoco on January 27, 1917, resulting in the deaths of four individuals. President Gonzales and his supporters fled to Nicaragua.  The US government imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of Frederico Tinoco on February 9, 1917.  Constituent Assembly elections were held on April 1, 1917.  Frederico Tinoco was elected president without opposition on April 1, 1917.  A new constitution went into effect on June 8, 1917.  Rogelio Fernandez Guell led a rebellion against the government beginning on February 22, 1918.  Government troops killed four individuals in La Pascua on February 23, 1918.  Rogelio Fernandez Guell and five other individuals were killed by government troops near the Panamanian border on March 20, 1918.  Some 500 Costa Rican troops were deployed along the Costa Rican-Nicaraguan border on May 25, 1918.  President Chamorro announced Nicaragua’s neutrality in the conflict in Costa Rica on December 15, 1918.  Some 1,500 rebels led by Julio Acosta invaded Costa Rica from Nicaraguan territory, and established a provisional government in Pena Blanca on May 6, 1919.  The US naval ship Castine was deployed near Puerta Limon (Port of Limon) as a show of force against the rebels on June 14, 1919.  President Tinoco fled the country on August 12, 1919, and Juan Bautista Quiros was elected provisional president by Congress on August 20, 1919. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of President Quiros on August 30, 1919. Francisco Aguilar Barquero was elected provisional president by Congress on September 3, 1919.  Five individuals were killed during demonstrations in Puntarenas on September 4, 1919.  The US naval ship Denver was deployed near Puntarenas on September 5, 1919, and the US naval ship Baltimore was deployed near Puntarenas on September 11, 1919.  Julio Acosta Garcia of the Constitutional Party (CP) was elected president on December 7, 1919, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1920.  Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(248-1414) Post-Crisis Phase (May 9, 1920-July 19, 1947): The US government provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Acosta Garcia on August 3, 1920. Congressional elections were held in 1921.  Congressional elections were held in 1923.  Richardo Jimenez Oreamuno of the National Republican Party (Partido Republicano Nacional - PRN) was elected president by the National Congreess in 1924, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1924.  Congressional elections were held in 1925.  Municipal elections were held on December 5, 1926.  Cleto Gonzalez Viquez of the National Union Party (Partido Union Nacional - PUN)  was elected president on February 12, 1928, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1928.  Midterm congressional elections were held in 1930.  The Workers and Peasants Bloc (Bloque de Obreros y Campesinos - BOC) was established on June 16, 1931.  Congressional elections were held on February 14, 1932.  Ricardo Jimenez Oreamuno of the PRN was elected president by the National Congress on May 1, 1932, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1932.  Midterm congressional elections were held in February 1934.  Congressional elections were held on February 9, 1936.  Leon Cortes Castro of PRN was elected president on February 9, 1936, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1936.  Midterm congressional elections were held in 1938.  Rafael Angel Calderon Guardia of the PRN was elected president with 90 percent of the vote on February 11, 1940, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1940.  Midterm congressional elections were held in 1942.  Jose Figueres Ferrer, an opponent of the government of President Calderon Guardia, was exiled to Mexico in 1942.  The BOC was renamed the Popular Vanguard Party (Partido Vanguardia Popular - PVP) on June 13, 1943.  The PRN and PVP formed the Victory Bloc (Bloque de la Victoria - BV) on September 22, 1943.  Congressional elections were held on February 13, 1944, and the PRN won 28 out of 45 seats in the National Congress.  Teodoro Picado Michalski of the PRN was elected president with 60 percent of the vote on February 13, 1944, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1944.  Jose Maria Figueres Ferrer established the Social Democratic Party (Partido Social Democrata - PSD) in March 1945.  Midterm congressional elections were held in 1946.

(248-1415) Crisis Phase (July 20, 1947-March 10, 1948):  Government troops and opposition demonstrators clashed beginning on July 20, 1947.  Opposition political parties signed a "nine-point agreement" with the government on August 3, 1947.  Otilio Ulate Blanco of the PUN was elected president on February 8, 1948.  The National Congress invalidated the presidential election by a vote of 27-19, and ordered another president election on March 1, 1948.  Otilio Ulate Blanco was arrested by government police on March 2, 1948, but he was released from police custody on March 3, 1948.  Msgr. Victor Manuel Sanabria, Archbishop of Costa Rica, offered to mediate negotiations between the parties, but he withdrew the mediation offer on March 10, 1948.  Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(248-1416) Conflict Phase (March 11, 1948-December 24, 1948): National Liberation Army (NLA) rebels led by Jose Maria Figueres Ferrer invaded the country from Guatemalan territory on March 11-12, 1948.  Cuba and Guatemala had provided military assistance (weapons and military advisors) to the NLA rebels beginning in 1947. President Picado Milchalski declared martial law on March 13, 1948. Nicaragua provided military assistance (military aircraft military personnel) to the government, and deployed 110 troops in support of the government beginning on March 15, 1948. Nicaragua withdrew its troops from Costa Rica on March 31, 1948. The ambassadors from the Papal Nuncio, US, Mexico, Argentina, and Panama attempted to mediate a ceasefire between government and rebel representatives in San Jose on April 14-18, 1948.  Nicaraguan troops intervened in support of the government from April 17-21, 1948. President Picado Milchalski was overthrown by NLA rebels on April 19, 1948, and he fled to Nicaragua on April 20, 1948. Vice President Leon Herrera was appointed as acting president on April 21, 1948, and Colonel Figueres Ferrer was appointed foreign minister. Colonel Figueres Ferrer was appointed head of a eleven-member military junta on May 8, 1948, and the PVP was banned.  Constituent Assembly elections were held on December 8, 1948, and the PUN won 33 out of 45 seats in the Constituent Assembly. Some 1,000 Costa Rican rebels led by Rafael Calderon Guardia invaded the country from Nicaragua on December 10-11, 1948. Costa Rica referred the matter to the Organization of American States (OAS) Council on December 11, 1948. The OAS Council established a five-member commission of inquiry (Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Peru, US) chaired by Juan Batista de Lavalle of Peru on December 14, 1948. The OAS commission of inquiry, which was assisted by ten staff personnel, arrived in Costa Rica on December 17, 1948. Government military aircraft attacked rebel bases in Nicaragua on December 20, 1948, and Costa Rican troops captured La Cruz from the rebels on December 23, 1948. The OAS commission of inquiry issued a report on December 24, 1948, which concluded that Nicaragua had failed to prevent the exile invasion of Costa Rica, but that no Nicaraguan soldiers were directly involved in the invasion. The OAS Council demanded a ceasefire on December 24, 1948, and established a five-member military observation commission (Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Paraguay, and the US) to monitor the ceasefire. Some 2,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(248-1417) Post-Conflict Phase (December 25, 1948-January 10, 1955): Costa Rica and Nicaragua signed the Pact of Amity in Washington DC on February 21, 1949, and the OAS military observation commission was withdrawn from the region.  Rebel leader, Rafael Calderon Guardia, was arrested by Nicaraguan troops on March 3, 1949.  Parliamentary elections were held on October 2, 1949, and the PUN won 33 out of 45 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  A new constitution went into effect on November 7, 1949.  Otilio Ulate Blanco was inaugurated as president on November 8, 1949.  Jose Figueres Ferrer established the National Liberation Party (Partido Liberacion Nacional - PLN) in 1951.  Parliamentary elections were held on July 26, 1953, and the PLN won 30 out of 45 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Jose Figueres Ferrer of the PLN was elected president on July 26, 1953, and he was inaugurated as president on November 8, 1953.

(248-1418) Conflict Phase (January 11, 1955-February 5, 1955): Some 400 rebels invaded Costa Rica from Nicaragua and seized Villa Quesada on January 11, 1955. Costa Rica declared a state-of-emergency, and severed diplomatic relations with Nicaragua on January 11, 1955. Costa Rica’s government accused Nicaragua of aggression and referred the matter to the OAS Council on January 9, 1955. The OAS Council established a five-member commission of inquiry (Brazil, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, US) on January 11, 1955. On January 14, 1955, the OAS established a peace observation mission in Costa Rica, involving military aircraft from the US (two aircraft and 28 crew), Mexico (two aircraft eight crew), and Ecuador (one aircraft and four crew).  The mission also included 19 military observers from Brazil (2 personnel), Peru, (1 personnel), Ecuador (8 personnel), Mexico (3 personnel), and the US (5 personnel), as well as a communications team from the US consisting of 5 personnel.  Costa Rica and Nicaragua accepted an OAS proposal to established a demilitarized zone along the border on January 20, 1955.  Some 300 rebels surrender to Nicaraguan troops on January 25, 1955. Costa Rica troops killed ten rebels and captured eight rebels near the Nicaraguan border on January 29-February 1, 1955. Government troops captured Los Chiles from rebel troops on February 5, 1955. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(248-1419) Post-Conflict Phase (February 6, 1955-May 8, 1966): The OAS commission of inquiry issued a report on February 17, 1955, and the OAS peace observation mission withdrew from Costa Rica on February 25, 1955.  The government suppressed an attempted assassination of President Fugueres Ferrer on May 21, 1957.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 2, 1958, and the PLN won 20 out of 45 seats in the Legislative Assembly. The PRN won 11 seats, and PUN won 21 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Mario Echandi of the PUN was elected president with 46 percent of the vote on February 2, 1958, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1958.  The United Nations (UN) secretariat sent three observers from Canada, Sweden, and Uruguay to monitor the elections. Government troops attacked rebels in Nicaragua in November 1960.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 4, 1962, and the PLN won 30 out of 57 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Francisco Jose Orlich Bolmarcich of the PLN was elected president on February 4, 1962.  The OAS sent three observers to monitor the elections in response to an invitation on January 26, 1962, and the OAS mission issued a report of the elections on February 8, 1962.  The Organization of Central American States (Organizacion de Estados Centroamericanos - ODECA) sent two observers to monitor the elections.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 6, 1966.  José Joaquín Antonio Trejos Fernández of the PUN was elected president on February 6, 1966, and he was inaugurated on May 8, 1966.  The OAS sent three observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections from January 31 to February 9, 1966.

(248-1420)  Post-Crisis Phase (May 9, 1966-present):  Parliamentary elections were held on February 1, 1970, and the PLN won 32 out of 57 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  José Figueres Ferrer of the PLN was elected president on February 1, 1970, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1970.  The OAS sent three observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 3, 1974, and the PLN won 25 out of 57 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Daniel Oduber Quirós of the PLN was elected president with 43 percent of the vote on February 3, 1974, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1974.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 5, 1978, and the Democratic Renovation Party (Partido Renovacion Democratico - PRD)/United Coalition (Coalicion Unidad - CU) won 27 out of 57 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  The PLN won 25 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Rodrigo Carazo Odio of the PRD/CU was elected president with 51 percent of the vote on February 5, 1978, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1978.  The OAS sent three observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 7, 1982, and the PLN won 33 seats out of 57 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Luis Alberto Monge of the PLN was elected president on February 7, 1982, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1982.  The OAS sent three observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 2, 1986, and the PLN won 29 out of 57 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  The Social Christian Unity Party (Partido Unidad Social Cristiana - PUSC) won 25 seats in the National Assembly.  Oscar Arias Sanchez of the PLN was elected president with 52 percent of the vote on February 2, 1986, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1986.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 4, 1990, and the PUSC won 29 out of 57 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  The PLN won 25 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Rafael Angel Calderon Fournier of the PUSC was elected president with 50 percent of the vote on February 4, 1990, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1990.  The OAS sent four observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections from February 2 to February 6, 1990.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 6, 1994, and the PLN won 28 out of 57 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  The PUSC won 25 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Jose Maria Figueres Olsen of the PLN was elected president with 50 percent of the vote on February 6, 1994, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1994.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 1, 1998, and the PUSC won 29 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  The PLN won 22 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Miguel Angel Rodriguez Echeverria of the PUSC was elected president on February 1, 1998, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 1998.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 2, 2002, and the PUSC won 19 out of 57 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  The PLN won 17 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Abel Pacheco de la Espriella of the PUSC was elected president in the second round of presidential elections with 58 percent of the vote on April 7, 2002, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 2002.  Parliamentary elections were held on February 5, 2006, and the PLN won 25 out of 57 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  The Citizens' Action Party (Partido Accion Ciudadana - PAC) won 17 seats in the Legislative Assembly.  Oscar Arias of the PLN was elected president with 41 percent of the vote on February 5, 2006, and he was inaugurated as president on May 8, 2006. 

[Sources: Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 738-741; Beigbeder, 1994, 232; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 56, 62-63, 79-80; Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 133-135; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), February 1, 1998, February 2, 1998, February 3, 1998, February 6, 2006, May 9, 2006; Clodfelter, 1992, 1157-1158; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1339; Facts on File, July 20-26, 1947, February 8-14, 1948, February 29-March 6, 1948, March 7-13, 1948, March 14-20, 1948, March 21-27, 1948, March 28-April 3, 1948, April 11-17, 1948, April 18-24, 1948, May 2-8, 1948, December 5-11, 1948, November 13-19, 1949, January 6-12, 1955, January 13-19, 1955, January 20-26, 1955, January 27-February 2, 1955, February 10-16, 1955, May 22-28, 1958, February 1-7, 1962; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1917, 301-349, 1918, 229-275, 1919, 803-865; Hispanic American Report (HAR), December 1948, January 1949, February 1949, March 1949, June 1949, July 1949, October 1949, January 1955, May 1957, December 1957, January 1958, February 1958, May 1958, October 1961, December 1961, January 1962, February 1962; Jessup, 1998, 137-138; Keesing's Record of World Events, March 13-20, 1948, May 15-22, 1948, January 8-15, 1949, January 29-February 5, 1949, April 12-19, 1958; Langer, 1972, 1068, 1243; Munro, 1934, 206-207; Munro, 1964, 426-448; Scheina, 2003, 180-182; Schooley, 1987, 96-105; Tillema, 1991, 22-24; Weisburd, 1997, 174, 177-178; Wright 1964, 97-101.]

(249-1422) Crisis Phase (September 6, 1930-July 16, 1942): President Martinez was overthrown in a military rebellion led by General Jose Felix Uriburu of the Conservative Party (CP) on September 6, 1930, and General Uriburu took control of the provisional government on September 8, 1930. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the provisional government of General Uriburu on September 8, 1930. General Uriburu declared a state-of-siege on September 9, 1930. The US lifted diplomatic sanctions against the government of General Uriburu on September 18, 1930. The government suppressed a rebellion in Corrientes in July 1931. General Agustin Justo of the UCR (anti-personalista faction) was elected president on November 8, 1931, and he was inaugurated as president on February 20, 1932. The UCR (personalista faction) boycotted the presidential election. The government suppressed a Radical rebellion in December 1932. The government declared a state-of-siege in December 1932. The government lifted the state-of-siege in May 1933. Parliamentary elections were held in March 1936, and the UCR took control of the Chamber of Deputies. The UCR and other left-wing groups formed the Popular Front (PF) on May 1, 1936. Fascist and other right-wing groups formed the National Front (NF) on May 31, 1936. The government banned the Communist Party of Argentina (Partido Communista de Argentina - PCA) on November 10, 1936. Supporters of President Justo formed the Concordancia coalition (Conservative Party and anti-personalista faction of the UCR) in 1937. Roberto Ortiz of the Concordancia coalition was elected president on September 5, 1937. Opposition political parties claimed election fraud in nine provinces. Roberto Ortiz was inaugurated as president on February 10, 1938. The government banned pro-Nazi organizations in Argentina on June 15, 1939. President Ortiz temporarily resigned due to ill health on July 3, 1940, and Vice-President Ramon Castillo became acting-president. On April 25, 1941, President Castillo announced that he would rule by decree as a result of a UCR boycott of the Chamber of Deputies. The UCR ended their boycott of the Chamber of Deputies on May 6, 1941. President Castillo declared a state-of-siege on December 15, 1941. President Ortiz died on July 15, 1942, and President Castillo assumed the presidency on a permanent basis on July 16, 1942.

(249-1424) Crisis Phase (June 4, 1943-October 31, 1945): President Castillo was deposed in a military coup led by General Arturo Rawson and General Pedro Pablo Ramirez on June 4, 1943. General Ramirez took control of the government and dissolved the parliament on June 8, 1943. President Ramirez temporarily relinquished the presidency to General Edelmiro Farrel on February 25, 1944. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government of General Farrel on March 4, 1944. President Ramirez formally resigned on March 10, 1944, and General Farrel assumed the presidency on March 11, 1944. Brazil, Britain, France, and Mexico provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Farrel on April 9, 1945, and the US lifted diplomatic sanctions against the government on April 9, 1945. President Farrel lifted the state-of-siege on August 6, 1945. Four civilians were killed during riots in Buenos Aires on August 15-17, 1945. Some 500,000 individuals demonstrated against the government in Buenos Aires on September 19, 1945. President Farrel lifted the ban on political party activity on October 31, 1945. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(249-1425) Post-Crisis Phase (November 1, 1945-June 15, 1955): Three individuals were killed in political violence in Buenos Aires on February 19, 1946, and one individual was killed in political violence near Buenos Aires on February 20, 1946. Parliamentary elections were held on February 24, 1946, and supporters of Colonel Juan Domingo Peron (Peronistas) won 109 out of 158 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Colonel Peron was elected president on February 24, 1946, and he was inaugurated as president on June 4, 1946. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on December 5, 1948, and the Peronistas won 109 out of 158 seats. The Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution, and the constitution went into effect on March 8, 1949. The government suppressed a rebellion led by General Benjamin Menendez on September 28, 1951, resulting in the death of one government soldier. Parliamentary elections were held on November 11, 1951, and the Peronistas won 135 out of 149 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. President Peron was re-elected with 66 percent of the vote on November 11, 1951. Eva Peron, the wife of President Peron, died on July 26, 1952. Six individuals were killed in political violence in Buenos Aires on April 15, 1953. President Peron began a campaign against the Roman Catholic Church on November 6, 1954, resulting in the arrest of 79 priests beginning on November 13, 1954. The government banned religious education in Argentine schools on May 13, 1955. The Chamber of Deputies approved legislation on May 19, 1955, which called for the election of a constituent assembly to draft an amendment to the constitution that would dis-establish Roman Catholicism as the state religion. Some 100,000 Roman Catholics demonstrated against the government in Buenos Aires on June 11-12, 1955. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between November 1945 and June 1955.

(249-1426) Crisis Phase (June 16, 1955-June 28, 1957): The government suppressed a military rebellion on June 16, 1955, resulting in the deaths of some 175 individuals. President Peron declared a state-of-siege on June 16, 1955, but he lifted the state-of-siege on June 29, 1955. On September 16, 1955, President Peron declared a state-of-siege after a military rebellion broke out in Cordoba and Buenos Aires. President Peron resigned on September 19, 1955, and a military junta headed by General Jose Domingo Molina took control of the government on September 20, 1955. Major-General Eduardo Lonardi was sworn in as provisional president on September 23, 1955. Some 4,000 individuals were killed during the rebellion. Uruguay provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Lonardi on September 22, 1955, and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Lonardi on September 25, 1955. Ecuador and Britain provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Lonardi. President Lonardi was deposed in a military coup led by Major-General Pedro Eugenio Aramburu on November 13, 1955. The government suppressed a Peronista rebellion led by General Juan Jose Valle in Santa Rosa and Rosario on June 9-10, 1956. Some 2,500 individuals were arrested for their involvement in the rebellion, and 38 Peronists were executed on June 10-13, 1956. The government lifted martial law on June 13, 1956. President Aramburu lifted the state-of-siege on June 28, 1957. Some 5,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(249-1427) Post-Crisis Phase (June 29, 1957-October 11, 1958): Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held on July 28, 1957, and the People’s Radical Civic Union (Union Civica Radical del Pueblo - UCRP) won 75 out of 205 seats. The Constituent Assembly convened on September 1, 1957, and voted to restore the 1853 constitution on September 24, 1957. The Constituent Assembly was dissolved on November 6, 1957. Parliamentary elections were held on February 23, 1958, and the Intransigent Radical Party (Union Civica Radical Intransigente - UCRI) won 133 out of 187 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Arturo Frondizi of the UCRI was elected president on February 23, 1958, and he was inaugurated as president on May 1, 1958.

(249-1428) Crisis Phase (October 12, 1958-September 21, 1963): The government uncovered a plot to overthrow President Frondizi on October 12, 1958, and the government imposed a state-of-siege on November 11, 1958. Parliamentary elections were held on March 27, 1960, and the Intransigent Radical Civic Union (Union Civica Radical Intransigente - UCRI) won 108 out of 192 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The People’s Radical Civic Union (Union Civica Radical del Pueblo - UCRP) won 78 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Government troops suppressed a Peronista rebellion led by General Miguel Angel Iniguez in Sante Fe and Salta provinces on November 30, 1960, resulting in the deaths of ten individuals. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Commander Hilario Maldonado in Buenos Aires on August 12, 1961. Parliamentary elections were held on March 18, 1962, and Peronistas won 43 out of 86 contested seats in the Chamber of Deputies. President Arturo Frondizi was overthrown in a military rebellion on March 28, 1962, and Jose Maria Guido, president of the Senate, was appointed as provisional president on March 29, 1962. Venezuela imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of President Guido on March 31, 1962. President Guido nullified the result of the recent parliamentary elections on April 25, 1962. President Guido dissolved the parliament and banned political parties on May 20, 1962. The government banned the Peronista and Communist Party of Argentina (Partido Communista de Argentina - PCA) on July 24, 1962. General Federico Toranzo Montero led a military rebellion against the government on August 8-12, 1962, resulting in the death of one individual. President Guido dissolved the parliament on September 6, 1962. Government troops and Nationalist/Constitutionalist rebel troops led by General Juan Carlos Ongania clashed in Buenos Aires and other cities on September 20-22, 1962, resulting in the deaths of 14 individuals. President Guido appointed General Ongania as army commander-in-chief on September 23, 1962. Government troops suppressed a naval rebellion in Buenos Aires on April 2-5, 1963, resulting in the deaths of some 30 individuals. Parliamentary elections were held on July 7, 1963, and the UCRP won 71 out of 192 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The UCRI won 41 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Arturo Illia of the UCRP was elected president on July 31, 1963. The government lifted the state-of-siege on September 21, 1963. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(249-1429) Post-Crisis Phase (September 22, 1963-June 27, 1966): The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government on May 10, 1964.

(249-1430) Crisis Phase (June 28, 1966-July 28, 1970): President Arturo Illia was overthrown in a military rebellion led by Lt. General Juan Carlos Ongania on June 28, 1966, and a three-member military junta headed by Lt. General Ongania took control of the government on June 29, 1966. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the military junta on June 28, 1966. Colombia and Venezuela imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the military junta on June 29, 1966. Brazil provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on July 5, 1966, and Britain provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on July 7, 1966. The US lifted diplomatic sanctions against the military junta on July 15, 1966. The Revolutionary Communist Party (Partido Communista Revolucionario - PCR) was established by dissidents of the PCA on January 6, 1968. The government declared a state-of-siege on June 30, 1969. President Carlos Ongania was overthrown in a military rebellion on June 8, 1970. A military junta appointed General Roberto Marcelo Levingston as president.

(249-1431) Conflict Phase (July 29, 1970-December 31, 1980): The Revolutionary Workers’ Party-People’s Revolutionary Army (Partido Revolucionario de Trabajadores-Ejercito Revolucionario del Pueblo - PRT-ERP) was established in opposition to the government on July 29, 1970. President Marcelo Levingston was overthrown by a military junta on March 23, 1971, and the military junta appointed General Alejandro Augustin Lanusse as president on March 26, 1971. The government legalized political parties on April 1, 1971. Four government policemen were killed in a bombing in Buenos Aires on January 14, 1972. Government police and Peronistas clashed in San Miguel on December 3, 1972, resulting in the death of one individual. Hector Campora of the Peronist Party (PP) was elected president on March 11, 1973, and he was inaugurated as president on May 25, 1973. The government declared a state-of-emergency in Buenos Aires and five provinces on April 30, 1973. The government lifted the state-of-emergency on May 19, 1973. Juan Peron returned from exile in Spain on June 20, 1973, and President Campora resigned on July 13, 1973. Raul Lastiri, president of the Chamber of Deputies, was sworn in as provisional president on July 14, 1973. Juan Peron was elected president, and Isabel Peron was elected vice-president on September 23, 1973. President Lastiri outlawed the ERP on September 24, 1973. Juan Peron was inaugurated as president on October 12, 1973. Seven individuals were killed in civil violence in Cordoba on March 2-7, 1974. President Juan Peron died on July 1, 1974, and he was succeeded by Vice-President Isabel Peron. President Peron declared a state-of-siege on November 6, 1974. Government troops conducted a military offensive against PRT-ERP rebels in Tucuman province from February to April 1975, resulting in the deaths of some 350 rebels. PRT-ERP rebels attacked the police headquarters in Cordoba on August 20, 1975, resulting in the deaths of seven individuals. Government troops and Montonero Peronista Movement (Movimiento Peronista Montonero - MPM) rebels clashed near Formosa on October 5-7, 1975, resulting in the deaths of some 30 government soldiers and rebels. General Orlando Jesus Capellini led an unsuccessful military rebellion against the government at Moron airforce base near Buenos Aires on December 18-22, 1975. Government troops and PRT-ERP rebels clashed in Buenos Aires on December 23-24, 1975, resulting in the deaths of 160 individuals. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in political violence in 1975, and 150 individuals were killed between January and March 1976. President Isabel Peron was deposed in a military coup on March 24, 1976, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. A military junta headed by Lt. General Videla took control of the government on March 29, 1976. Fifteen individuals were killed in political violence in Cordoba on March 26-27, 1976. The military junta dissolved the parliament and declared martial law. Forty-three government policemen were killed in a bombing in Buenos Aires on July 2, 1976. Roberto Mario Santucho, leader of the PRT-ERP, was killed by government troops near Buenos Aires on July 19, 1976. Lt. General Videla survived an attempted assassination in Buenos Aires on October 2, 1976. Some 125 government soldiers and 1,700 left-wing rebels were killed in political violence between March 1976 and March 1977. Government troops and left-wing rebels clashed near Buenos Aires on January 1-4, 1977, resulting in the deaths of 18 rebels. On September 6-20, 1979, the Inter-American Human Rights Commission (IAHRC) of the Organization of American States (OAS) investigated reports of human rights violations. Government troops suppressed the left-wing rebellion in December 1980. Some 16,500 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(249-1432) Post-Conflict Phase (January 1, 1981-December 10, 1983): Former President Isabel Peron was exiled in 1981. General Robert Eduardo Viola was sworn in as president by the military junta on March 29, 1981. The Radical Civic Union (Union Civica Radical - UCR), the Peronist Movement (PM), the Intransigent Party (IP), the Christian Democratic Federation (CDF), and the Movement for Integration and Development (MID) established a national front (multipartidaria) in opposition to the military junta on July 14, 1981. General Viola resigned as president on December 11, 1981, and General Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri was sworn in as president by the military junta on December 22, 1981. Parliamentary elections were held on October 30, 1983, and the UCR won 128 out of 254 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PM won 112 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Raul Alfonsin of the UCR was elected president with 52 percent of the vote on October 30, 1983, and he was inaugurated as president on December 10, 1983. Some 15,000 individuals were killed in political violence between January 1981 and December 1983.

(249-1434) Crisis Phase (October 25, 1985-December 5, 1990): President Alfonsin declared a 60-day state-of-siege on October 25, 1985. Congressional elections were held on November 3, 1985, and the UCR won 128 out of 254 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Peronista Movement (PM) won 101 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Lt. General Jorge Rafael Videla was convicted of human rights abuses and sentenced to life imprisonment on December 9, 1985. President Alfonsin lifted the state-of-siege on December 7, 1985. Parliamentary elections were held in 1987, and the UCR won 114 out of 254 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PM won 105 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Parliamentary elections were held on May 14, 1989, and the PM won 66 out of 127 contested seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The UCR won 41 of the contested seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Carlos Saul Menem of the PM was elected president on May 14, 1989, and he was inaugurated as president on July 8, 1989. Three individuals were killed in political violence in Rosario on May 29, 1989. The government declared a 30-day state-of-siege on May 29, 1989, and the state-of-siege was lifted on June 27, 1989.  Government troops suppressed a right-wing military rebellion in Buenos Aires on December 3, 1990, resulting in the deaths of 21 individuals. The government imposed a state-of-siege on December 3, 1990, and lifted the state-of-siege on December 5, 1990. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(249-1435) Post-Crisis Phase (December 6, 1990-December 18, 2001): Parliamentary elections were held on October 3, 1993, and the Partido Justicialista (PJ) won 126 out of 254 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The UCR won 83 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on April 10, 1994, and the PJ won 136 out of 305 seats in the assembly. The UCR won 75 seats in the Constituent Assembly. Parliamentary elections were held on October 24, 1999, and the UCR-Front for a Country in Solidarity (Frente del Pais Solidario - FPS) alliance won 63 out of 130 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The PJ won 50 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Fernando de la Rua of the UCR was elected president with 49 percent of the vote on October 24, 1999, and he was inaugurated as president in December 1999. Government police and demonstrators clashed in Corrientes on December 17, 1999, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. Parliamentary elections were held on October 14, 2001, and the PJ won 66 out of 127 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The UCR/FPS alliance won 35 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.

(249-1436) Crisis Phase (December 19, 2001-May 25, 2003): Four individuals were killed during anti-government demonstrations in Buenos Aires, and the government declared a 30-day state-of-emergency on December 19, 2001. President Fernando de la Rua resigned and lifted the state-of-emergency on December 20, 2001.  Ramon Puerta was appointed as acting president on December 21, 2001, and Adolfo Rodriguez Saa was sworn in as interim president on December 23, 2001. President Rodriguez Saa resigned on December 31, 2001, and Eduardo Duhalde of the PJ was confirmed as president by Congress on January 2, 2002. Twenty-seven individuals were killed in political violence on December 19-31, 2001. Government police clashed with demonstrators in Buenos Aires on June 26, 2002, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. Nestor Kirchner of the PJ was elected president on April 27, 2003, and he was inaugurated as president on May 25, 2003.  Some 50 individuals have been killed during the crisis.

(249-1437)  Post-Crisis Phase (May 26, 2003-present):  Parliamentary elections were held on October 23, 2005, and the Front for Victory (Frente para la Victoria-FPV) won 50 out of 127 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  The UCR won 10 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), December 17, 1999, January 2, 2002; Bannon and Dunne, 1947, 509-537; Bethel, 1993; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), December 20, 2001, December 31, 2001, June 26, 2002; Clodfelter, 1992, 1184, 1186-1188; Degenhardt, 1988, 13-17; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1341; Facts on File, February 17-23, 1946, September 28-October 4, 1951, November 9-15, 1951, April 17-23, 1953, May 19-25, 1955, June 16-22, 1955, June 23-29, 1955, September 15-21, 1955, November 10-16, 1955, June 6-12, 1956, June 13-19, 1956, July 25-31, 1957, February 20-26, 1958, December 1-7, 1960, August 10-16, 1961, March 22-28, 1962, March 29-April 4, 1962, April 26-May 2, 1962, May 17-23, 1962, September 20-26, 1962, March 28-April 3, 1963, April 4-10, 1963, June 23-29, 1966, July 21-27, 1966, March 25-31, 1971, April 15-21, 1971, May 6-12, 1973, May 20-26, 1973, July 15-21, 1973, September 23-29, 1973, March 29, 1975, December 27, 1975, December 31, 1975, January 10, 1976, March 27, 1976, April 3, 1976, August 7, 1976, December 31, 1976, January 15, 1977, September 14, 1979, November 1, 2001, December 20, 2001, December 31, 2001; Falcoff and Dolkart, 1975, 31-56; Hispanic American Review (HAR), September 1951, November 1951, May 1955, June 1955, July 1955, August 1955, September 1955, November 1955, June 1956, June 1957, July 1957, September 1957, November 1957, December 1957, January 1958, February 1958, March 1958, August 1962, April 1963; Jessup, 1998, 37-38; Keesing's Record of World Events, November 10-17, 1945, May 18-25, 1946, June 15-22, 1946, January 1-8, 1949, November 3-10, 1951, November 24-December 1, 1951, August 31-September 7, 1957, November 16-23, 1957, December 19-26, 1964, November 12-19, 1966, January 29-February 4, 1973, August 6-12, 1973, November 5-11, 1973, July 22-28, 1974, March 17-23, 1975, October 27-November 2, 1975, March 5, 1976, May 28, 1976, January 11, 1980, February 19, 1980, October 1986, May 1989, July 1989, December 1990, October 1993, April 1994, October 1999; Langer, 1972, 1059-1060, 1251-1253; Munro, 1961, 171-196; New York Times (NYT), April 28, 2003; Radu and Tismaneanu, 1990, 91-107; Reuters, June 27, 2002, April 28, 2003; Robertson, 1943, 212-237; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1930, 553.]

(250-1439) Crisis Phase (July 11, 1920-December 1, 1925): President Gutierrez Guerra was overthrown in a military rebellion on July 11-12, 1920, and a military junta headed by Juan Bautista Saavedra of the Socialist Republican Union (SRU) took control of the government on July 13, 1920. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of Juan Bautista Saavedra on July 20, 1920. Parliamentary elections were held on November 14, 1920, and the SRU won 67 out of 70 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Two individuals were killed in election-related violence in Cliza, and one individual was killed in election-related violence in Trinidad. Juan Bautista Saavedra was elected president by the National Assembly on January 24, 1921, and he was inaugurated as president on January 28, 1921. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Saavedra on February 9, 1921. Government troops suppressed a rebellion in the Jesus de Machaca district in March 1921, resulting in the deaths of several hundred individuals. Government troops fired on demonstrators in the Uncia region on June 4, 1923, resulting in the deaths of several dozen individuals. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion in Yacuiba in February 1924. Government troops suppressed a rebellion in Santa Cruz in July 1924. Jose Cabino Villanueva of the SRU was elected president on May 2, 1925, but Congress annulled the election on September 1, 1925. Hernando Siles of the SRU was elected president without opposition on December 1, 1925. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(250-1440) Post-Crisis Phase (December 2, 1925-May 3, 1927): The Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista - PN) headed by Rafael Taborga was established in January 1927. Congressional elections were held in May 1927, and the PN won 21 out of 34 contested seats in the National Assembly.

(250-1441) Crisis Phase (May 4, 1927-March 5, 1931): The government declared a state-of-siege after violent demonstrations on May 4, 1927. President Siles seized control of the government in January 1929. Congressional elections were held in May 1929, and the PN won 29 out of 60 seats in the National Assembly. President Siles resigned on May 28, 1930, and a council of ministers took control of the government on May 29, 1930. Government troops suppressed student demonstrations in La Paz on June 12-22, 1930, resulting in the deaths of several individuals. General Carlos Blanco Galindo led a military rebellion against the government beginning on June 17, 1930, and a six-member provisional military junta headed by General Blanco Galindo took control of the government on June 27, 1930. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of General Galindo on June 30, 1930. The US lifted diplomatic sanctions against the government of General Galindo on September 17, 1930. Daniel Salamanca was elected president in January 1931, and he was inaugurated as president on March 5, 1931. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(250-1442) Post-Crisis Phase (March 6, 1931-November 23, 1934): Congressional elections were held in January 1931, and the LP won 38 out of 68 seats in the National Assembly. President Salamanca was deposed in a military coup on November 24, 1934, and Vice President Jose Luis Tejada Sorzano of the PL assumed the presidency on November 25, 1934.

(250-1443) Crisis Phase (November 24, 1934-March 10, 1947): President Daniel Salamanca was deposed in a military coup on November 24, 1934, and Vice President Jose Luis Tejada Sorzano of the LP assumed the presidency on November 25, 1934. President Tejada Sorzano resigned after several days of unrest on May 17, 1936, and Colonel David Toro Ruilova was appointed as provisional president on May 19, 1936. President Toro Ruilova was deposed in a military coup led by Colonel German Busch Becerra on July 13, 1937, and Colonel Busch Becerra was appointed provisional president. The government banned the Communist Party of Bolivia (Partido Communista de Bolivia - PCB) in April 1938, and declared martial law on November 25, 1938. President Busch suspended the constitution and established a dictatorship on April 24, 1939. President Busch committed suicide on August 23, 1939. General Carlos Quintanilla assumed the presidency and restored the 1938 constitution. Enrique Penaranda was elected president on March 10, 1940, and he was inaugurated as president on April 15, 1940. President Penaranda was deposed in a military coup led by Lt. Colonel Gualberto Villarroel of the National Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario - MNR) on December 20, 1943. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) against the government of Major Villarroel on January 25, 1944. Major Villarroel was elected president in August 1944. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion in Oruro on November 18, 1944, and four individuals were executed for their involvement in the military rebellion on November 19, 1944. Five individuals, including General Demetrio Ramos, were executed by government soldiers near La Paz on November 20, 1944. President Villarroel declared a state-of-siege after several weeks of civil unrest on May 30, 1946. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion in La Paz on June 13, 1946, resulting in the deaths of five individuals. President Villarroel was killed during a rebellion led by the the Popular Revolutionary Movement (PRM) on July 18-21, 1946, resulting in the deaths of 260 individuals. Nestor Gullen was appointed as provisional president of a revolutionary junta on July 22, 1946. Chile provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Gullen on August 6, 1946. Argentina, Guatemala, Paraguay, and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Gullen on August 12, 1946. Britian and Nicaragua provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Gullen on August 13, 1946. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in political violence in 1946. Enrique Hertzog of the Socialist Republican Union Party (Partido Union Republicana Socialista - PURS) was elected president on January 5, 1947. The Congress voted to approve the election of Enrique Hertzog as president on March 9, 1947 (since Enrique Hertzog won less than 50 percent of the popular vote). Enrique Hertzog was inaugurated as president on March 10, 1947. Some 1,500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(250-1445) Crisis Phase (May 1, 1949-August 25, 1949): Parliamentary elections were held on May 1, 1949, and the PURS won 28 out of 56 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The National Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario - MNR) won 9 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Eight individuals were killed in political violence after the elections.

(250-1446) Conflict Phase (August 26, 1949-April 11, 1952): The MNR led a military rebellion against the government in southern Bolivia beginning on August 26, 1949, and rebels captured Santa Cruz on August 27, 1949. Argentina announced a policy of "absolute non-intervention" in the rebellion on September 2, 1949. Government troops commanded by General Ovidio Quiroga suppressed the MNR rebellion on September 16, 1949. Some 350 individuals were killed during the rebellion. President Enrique Hertzog resigned due to ill health on October 22, 1949, and Vice-President Mamerto Urriolagoita was sworn in as president on October 24, 1949. The government proclaimed a state-of-siege after discovering a plot by the MNR to overthrow the government on January 14, 1950. The government suppressed a rebellion led by Guillermo Alborta of the MNR on March 17, 1950. The government suppressed communist rebellions on February 4 and March 26, 1950. The government banned the Communist Party of Bolivia (Partido Communista de Bolivia - PCB) on April 11, 1950. The government declared a state-of-emergency on May 15, 1950. Government troops and striking workers clashed in La Paz on May 18-19, 1950, resulting in the deaths of 38 individuals. The government suppressed several rebellions between July 6-22, 1950. Victor Paz Estenssoro of the MNR won 45 percent of the vote in a presidential election held on May 6, 1951, but President Urriolagoita placed the government under the control of a military junta headed by General Huga Ballivian on May 16, 1951. Brazil, Peru, and Spain provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on May 19, 1951. Chile and Colombia provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on May 26, 1951. Argentina provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on June 5, 1951. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the military junta on June 7, 1951. The military junta was overthrown during a MNR rebellion on April 9-11, 1952. Some 2,500 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(250-1447) Post-Conflict Phase (April 12, 1952-March 22, 1967): Victor Paz Estenssoro returned from exile on April 15, 1952, and he was inaugurated as president on April 16, 1952. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Paz Estenssoro on June 2, 1952. The government seized tin mines in Patino, Aramayo, and Hochschild on October 7, 1952, and nationalized the tin mines on October 31, 1952. The government suppressed a rebellion on January 6, 1953. The government suppressed a rebellion by the Bolivian Socialist Falange Party (Partido Falange Socialista Boliviana - PFSB) headed by Oscar Unzaga de la Vega on November 9, 1953, resulting in the deaths of 23 individuals. Parliamentary elections were held on June 17, 1956, and the MNR won 60 out of 68 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Hernan Siles Zuazo of the MNR was elected president with 82 percent of the vote on June 17, 1956, and he was inaugurated as president on August 5, 1956. On September 23, 1956, President Siles Zuazo declared a state-of-siege after five individuals were killed during rioting in La Paz on September 22-23, 1956. The government suspended the state-of-siege on September 20, 1957. The government suppressed a military rebellion led by Colonel Windsor Lopez Videla near La Paz on October 4, 1957. The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government beginning on April 22, 1958. The government declared a state-of-siege after a rebellion led by Colonel Jorge Barrenechea broke out in Santa Cruz province on May 14, 1958. The government lifted the state-of-siege in Santa Cruz province on June 21, 1958. Parliamentary elections were held on July 20, 1958, and the MNR won 12 out of 34 contested seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Three individuals were killed in election-related violence in La Paz. The government suppressed a rebellion by the PFSB in La Paz on October 21, 1958, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. The government declared martial law on October 22, 1958. The government suppressed a rebellion by the PFSB in La Paz on April 19, 1959, resulting in the deaths of 22 individuals. The government suppressed a rebellion in Santa Cruz province on June 27, 1959, resulting in the death of one individual. The government suppressed a rebellion led by Colonel Hermogenes Rios Ledezma and Waldo Cerruto in La Paz on March 19, 1960, resulting in the deaths of 16 individuals. Twenty-five peasants were killed in political violence in the Vila Vila region of Cochabamba on June 4, 1960. Victor Paz Estenssoro of the MNR was elected president with 75 percent of the vote on June 5, 1960, and he was inaugurated as president on August 6, 1960. Five individuals were killed in political violence in the Oruru district on June 6, 1960. Government troops and peasants clashed in Cochabamba on November 14-17, 1960, resulting in the deaths of 100 individuals. President Paz Estenssoro declared a state-of-siege on November 18, 1960. President Paz Estenssoro declared a state-of-siege on February 21, 1961. President Paz Estenssoro declared a state-of-siege after government police suppressed a communist attempt to overthrow the government on June 7, 1961. The Congress approved a new constitution on July 31, 1961, and the constitution went into effect on August 5, 1961. The government suppressed a right-wing rebellion on October 18, 1961, and imposed a state-of-siege in La Paz on October 21, 1961. Eight individuals were killed in political violence in La Paz on October 23-24, 1961. Government police and demonstrators clashed in La Paz on April 17, 1962, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. Parliamentary elections were held on June 3, 1962, and the MNR won a majority of the seats. The government declared a state-of-siege after discovering a right-wing plot to overthrow the government on September 29, 1962. President Paz Estenssoro was re-elected without opposition on May 31, 1964. Opposition political parties had boycotted the presidential election. On September 20, 1964, the government declared a state-of-siege after discovering a plot to overthrow the government. Government police and students clashed in Cochabamba on October 21, 1964, resulting in the death of one student. Some 50 individuals were killed during political violence in La Paz and several other cities on October 26-30, 1964. President Victor Paz Estenssoro was deposed in a military coup led by General Rene Barrientos Ortuno and General Alfredo Ovando Candia on November 3-4, 1964, resulting in the deaths of 15 individuals. A military junta headed by Lt. General Barrientos Ortuno took control of the government on November 5, 1964, and the military junta restored the 1947 constitution on November 6, 1964. Some 40 individuals were killed during the military coup. Government troops and tin miners clashed in La Paz, Oruro, and Potosi provinces on May 15-24, 1965, resulting in the deaths of some 70 individuals. The parties agreed to a ceasefire that went into effect on May 25, 1965. General Alfredo Ovando Candia was appointed co-president with Lt. General Barrientos Ortuno on May 26, 1965. Government troops and tin miners clashed in the Catavi-Siglo Veinte on September 18-21, 1965, resulting in the deaths of 35 individuals. The government declared a nationwide state-of-siege on September 20, 1965. Congressional elections were held on July 3, 1966, and the Revolutionary Front of Bolivia (Frente de la Revolucion Boliviana - FRB) won 82 out of 102 seats in the National Assembly.  General Barrientos of the FRB was elected president on July 3, 1966, and he was inaugurated as president on August 6, 1966. The Organization of American States (OAS) sent 12 observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections, and issued a report on July 5, 1966. The National Liberation Army (Ejercito de Liberacion Nacional - ELN) was established in opposition to the government in 1966. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(250-1448) Conflict Phase (March 23, 1967-November 15, 1967): Ernesto "Che" Guevara and 50 members of the ELN rebelled against the government in southeast Bolivia beginning on March 23, 1967. Government troops and ELN rebels clashed near Iripiti on April 10, 1967, resulting in the deaths of ten government soldiers and one rebel. The US provided military assistance (20 military advisors) beginning on April 10, 1967. The government imposed martial law in southeastern Bolivia on April 11, 1967, and banned the Communist Party of Bolivia (Partido Communista de Bolivia - PCB) on April 12, 1967. Ernest "Che" Guevara was captured and killed by Bolivian troops on October 8-9, 1967. Government troops suppressed the ELN rebellion on November 15, 1967. Some 40 rebels and 42 government soldiers were killed during the conflict.

(250-1449) Post-Conflict Phase (November 16, 1967-August 11, 1978): President Barrientos suspended constitutional rights and canceled planned elections following riots in July 1968. President Barrientos declared a state-of-siege on January 18, 1969. President Barrientos was killed in a helicopter crash on April 27, 1969, and he was succeeded by Vice President Luis Adolfo Siles Salinas. President Siles Salinas was deposed in a military coup led by General Alfredo Ovando Candia on September 26, 1969. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on October 10, 1969. The government nationalized the US-owned Bolivian Oil Company on October 17, 1969. ELN rebels kidnapped two West German citizens in Teoponte on July 19, 1970, but released the hostages after the government release 10 ELN rebels from prison on July 23, 1970. General Ovando Candia declared a state-of-siege on July 21, 1970. Anti-government demonstrations occurred on August 27, 1970. Six individuals were killed in political violence in La Paz on September 16, 1970. General Rogelio Miranda, commander-in-chief of the army, demanded the resignation of President Ovando Candia on October 4, 1970. Mgr. Giovanni Gravelli, the Papal Nuncio, facilitated negotiations between President Ovando Candia and General Rogelio Miranda on October 5, 1970. President Ovando Candia resigned on October 6, 1970, and General Juan Jose Torres Gonzales took control of the government on October 7, 1970. Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Oruro on October 7, 1970, resulting in the deaths of six government soldiers and seven demonstrators. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on October 13, 1970, and Britain provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on October 14, 1970. President Torres Gonzales declared a state-of-emergency on June 22, 1971. President Torres Gonzales was deposed in a right-wing military rebellion led by Colonel Hugo Banzer Suarez on August 19-23, 1971, resulting in the deaths of some 120 individuals. President Torres Gonzales was deposed in a military coup on August 22, 1971, and Colonel Banzer Suarez toon control of the government on August 23, 1971. The government proclaimed a state-of-siege on November 23, 1972. Government troops clashed with peasants near Tolata on January 25-30, 1974, resulting in the deaths of some 100 peasants. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion in La Paz on June 4, 1974. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by General Julio Prado Montano and General Orlando Alvarez in Santa Cruz on November 7-9, 1974, and the government declared a state-of-emergency on November 7, 1974. The government declared a state-of-siege on June 9, 1976. The government lifted the state of siege on July 29, 1976. General Juan Pereda Asbun of the People’s Nationalist Union (Union Nacionalista del Puelblo - UNP) was elected president on July 9, 1978, but opposition political parties claimed election fraud. The OAS sent three observers to monitor the elections, and the observation mission issued a report on July 19, 1978. President Banzer Suarez resigned on July 21, 1978. General Pereda Asbun took control of the government, and declared a state-of-emergency on July 21, 1978. The US imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government on July 21, 1978. Government police and peasants clashed in the Coritapa region on July 25, 1978, resulting in the deaths of eleven individuals. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of President Pereda Asbun on August 4, 1978. The government lifted the state-of-emergency on August 11, 1978. Some 250 individuals were killed in political violence between November 1967 and August 1978.

(250-1450) Post-Crisis Phase (August 12, 1978-November 23, 1978): The US lifted military sanctions against the government on August 15, 1978.

(250-1451) Crisis Phase (November 24, 1978-October 10, 1982): President Pereda Asbun was deposed in a military coup led by General David Padilla Arancibia on November 24, 1978. Presidential elections were held on July 1, 1979, but no candidate won a majority of the vote. Congress appointed Walter Guevara Arce as interim president on August 6, 1979. President Guevara Arce was deposed in a military coup led by Colonel Alberto Natusch Busch on November 1, 1979. The US condemned the military coup on November 2, 1979. The US imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) and economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government on November 2, 1979. Some 300 individuals were killed during the political violence on November 1-7, 1979. Lydia Gueiler Tejada, president of the Chamber of Deputies, was appointed interim president on November 16, 1979. The government suppressed rebellions on June 7-17, 1980. Presidential elections were held on June 29, 1980, but no candidate won a majority of the vote. Twelve individuals were killed in election-related violence. President Gueiler Tejada was deposed in a military coup led by General Luis Garcia Meza on July 17, 1980, resulting in the deaths of some 300 individuals. General Garcia Meza was inaugurated as president on July 18, 1980. The US imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic non-recognition) and military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the government of General Garcia Meza on July 18, 1980. Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela referred the matter to the OAS Council on July 18, 1980, and the OAS Council condemned the military coup on July 25, 1980. Argentina provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of General Garcia Meza on July 28, 1980, and offered economic assistance to the government on August 6, 1980. Brazil provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on July 30, 1980. General Lucio Anez Rivero led a military rebellion against the government in Santa Cruz on August 3, 1980, and President Garcia Meza resigned on August 4, 1980. The Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration (ICEM) assisted some 1,600 Bolivians obtain asylum abroad between July 1980 and July 1981. General Celso Torrelio Villa was inaugurated as president on September 4, 1981. General Guido Vildoso Calderon took control of the government on July 21, 1982. Some 50,000 individuals demonstrated against the government on September 7, 1982, and General Vildoso Calderon relinquished control of the government to the Congress on September 17, 1982. Hernan Siles Zuazo was elected president by the Congress on October 5, 1982, and he was inaugurated as president on October 10, 1982. Some 650 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(250-1452) Post-Crisis Phase (October 11, 1982-September 17, 1985): President Siles Zuazo was kidnapped during a military rebellion on June 30, 1984, and he was released on July 10, 1984. Parliamentary elections were held on July 17, 1985, and the National Revolutionary Movement (MNR) faction headed by Victor Paz Estenssoro won 59 out of 130 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Victor Paz Estenssoro was elected president on July 17, 1985, and he was inaugurated on August 6, 1985.

(250-1453) Crisis Phase (September 18, 1985-October 16, 1995): On September 18, 1985, President Paz Estenssoro declared a state-of-siege after ten days of a nationwide labor strike. The MNR and the right-wing Nationalist Democratic Action (Accion Democratica Nacionalista - AND) signed a "Pact for Democracy" (Pacto por la Democracia) on October 16, 1985. President Paz Estenssoro lifted the state-of-siege on December 19, 1985. President Paz Estenssoro declared a 90-day state-of-siege on August 27, 1986, and the state-of-siege was lifted on November 27, 1986.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 7, 1989, and the MNR won 49 out of 157 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Organization of American States (OAS) sent two observers to monitor the elections.  Jaime Paz Zamora of the Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR) was elected president by the Congress, and he was inaugurated as president on August 6, 1989. President Paz Zamora declared a 90-day state of siege on November 15, 1989, and the state-of-siege was lifted on February 15, 1990.  Parliamentary elections were held on June 6, 1993, and the MNR won 52 out of 130 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Patriotic Accord (PA) won 35 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada Bustimente of the MNR was elected president with 34 percent of the vote on June 6, 1993, and he was inaugurated as president on August 6, 1993. The government imposed a state-of-siege on April 18, 1995, and extended the state-of-siege for 90 days on July 18, 1995. The government lifted the state-of-siege on October 16, 1995.

(250-1454) Post-Crisis Phase (October 17, 1995-April 7, 2000): Parliamentary elections were held on June 1, 1997, and the AND won 33 out of 130 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The MNR won 26 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and the MIR won 25 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Hugo Banzer Suarez of AND won a plurality of 22.3 percent of the vote in the presidential election on June 1, 1997. The OAS sent 19 observers to monitor the presidential elections from April 24 to June 10, 1997. Hugo Banzer Suarez was confirmed as president by the Congress on August 5, 1997, and he was inaugurated as president on August 6, 1997.

(250-1455) Crisis Phase (April 8, 2000-June 9, 2005): President Banzer Suarez declared a state-of-emergency after the deaths of eight individuals during demonstrations in Patacamaaya, Lahuachaca, and Cochabamba on April 8-9, 2000. President Banzer Suarez resigned due to illness on August 6, 2001, and Vice President Jose Fernando Quiroga Ramirez was sworn in as president on August 7, 2001. Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada of the MNR won a plurality of 22 percent of the vote in presidential elections on June 30, 2002. The OAS sent 54 observers headed by Elizabeth Spehar to monitor the presidential elections beginning on June 15, 2002, and the mission reported to the OAS Permanent Council on July 11, 2002.  Since no candidate won 50 percent of the vote in the June presidential election, the Congress elected Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada as president on August 4, 2002.  Some thirty individuals were killed in political violence in La Paz on February 12-13, 2003.  The government imposed martial law in El Alto on October 12, 2003.  Some 80 individuals were killed in political violence from mid-September to October 17, 2003.  President Sanchez de Lozada resigned, and Vice-President Carlos Mesa was sworn in as president on October 17, 2003.  A referendum regarding the country's natural gas reserves was held on July 18, 2004.  The OAS sent 22 observers to monitor the referendum.  President Carlos Mesa offered to resigned on March 7, 2005, but Congress voted unanimously to reject the offer of resignation on March 8, 2005.  President Mesa offered his resignation on June 6, 2005, and Edward Rodriguez was appointed as interim president by the National Congress on June 9, 2005.  Some 125 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(250-1456)  Post-Crisis Phase (June 10, 2005-present):  Parliamentary elections were held on December 18, 2005, and the Movement Toward Social