A SUMMARY OF THE THREE KINDS OF EMBEDDING:

 

Nominal Embedding:

Full forms (signaled by a function word, called a "complementizer,"at the head of the inserted part):

1) that

2) whether and if

Reduced forms (no signal word precedes the sentence; therefore verb is changed to a non-active form): 3) possessive + -ing (or possessive + noun) and

4) [for] + infinitive (sometimes for + subject + infinitive)

[wh- words: they not only embed but they fill a role in the insert sentence]

Adjectival Embedding:

Full forms are signaled by function words called "relative pronouns": who/whom, that, or which

(They are called "relative pronouns" because they take the place of a noun in the insert sentence)

Reduced forms: a participle phrase, a noun phrase (called an appositive)

(Single adjectives might be called reduced forms because they can all be expressed in a "who is" or "that is" form: the black box can be expressed as the box that is black. We're going to ignore that, but that's where Chomsky says all adjectives come from--little subject-verb-complement sentences like The box is black embedded into other sentences.)

Adverbial Embedding:

Full forms are signaled by function words called "subordinators" (see the list on the next page, e.g., because, although). Anything that answers where, when, how, why, in what way (or that indicates contrast or condition) is an adverbial.

Reduced forms: an absolute .

Subordinators are function words that make what was an independent clause (a whole sentence) into an adverbial; they must go at the head of the clause (see column 3 of the chart).

Transitional words are themselves the adverbials; they can go at the head of the sentence or they can go lots of different places within it, since adverbials are very movable (see column 4 of the chart).

Here is an example of embedding with a subordinator:

He got a cat + He's changed his mind about cats þ Since he got a cat, he's changed his mind about cats. (Notice that since must be placed at the head of one of the sentences; it makes what was a whole sentence into an adverbial.)

Here is an example of adding a transitional word that is itself the adverbial (we have not made a whole sentence into an adverbial; we still have 2 sentences):

He got a cat + He's changed his mind about cats º He got a cat; therefore, he's changed his mind about cats. Or He got a cat; he's therefore changed his mind about cats. Or He got a cat; he's changed his mind, therefore, about cats. Notice that the adverbial therefore can go lots of places in the second sentence. Since can go only one place because it is a function word, not an adverbial. (I could have used a period instead of a semi-colon; semi-colons are like periods, NOT like commas. They can go only where periods can go.)

Exs. of Nominal Transforms:

 

1. that:

He doesn't know that I know (direct object)

She reported that he got an "A." (direct object)

2. whether:

I wonder if it hurts. (direct object)

Whether he hit him is a mystery. (subject)

The argument concerned whether the team won (direct object)

3. Possessive + ing:

The argument concerned the team's winning. (direct object)

Her getting an "A" was not surprising. (subject)

4. (for) + infinitive:

He doesn't want me to know. (direct object)

He hates for me to know. (direct object)

She wanted him to get an "A." (direct object)

For him to get a bad grade is uncommon. (subject)

[Here are examples of wh- words embedding and filling a role in the insert sentence at the same time:

"I don’t know what she wants – from Receiver "I don’t know something" and Insert "She wants something"

"Where she goes is a mystery" –from Receiver "Something is a mystery" and Insert "She goes someplace"]

 

Exs. of Adjectival Transformations (they usually go before or after the noun modified--always after, if restrictive)

1. that/which: The cake that won was delicious or The cake which won was delicious.

2. single adj: The winning cake was delicious (Unreduced form: The cake which won was delicious.)

3. participle phrase: The boy taking his time is my son. (Unreduced form: The boy who is taking his time is my son.

4. appositive: That politician, an institution in our community, won easily. (Unreduced form: That politician, who is an institution in our community, won easily.)

 

Exs. of Adverbial Transforms (they can go anywhere an adverb can go)

1. Subordinator: She worried because the test was hard or Because the test was hard, she worried.

2. Absolute: She worried, the test being hard (or The test being hard, she worried.)

Adverbial Table

Relationship         Coordinators             Subordinators                     Transitions

("meaning")          (Joining Transforms.) (Embedding Transforms)     (one-word adverbials)

__________________________________________________________________________________

Addition               and                                                                     also

                                                                                                       besides

                                                                                                       furthermore

                                                                                                       moreover

                                                                                                       likewise

_______________________________________________________________________________

Time                                                     before                                then

                                                            after                                   next

                                                            since                                  afterwards

                                                            until                                    before

                                                            when                                  later

                                                            while                                  subsequently

                                                            as

_______________________________________________________________________________

Place                                                   where

                                                           wherever

_______________________________________________________________________________

Manner                                                as if

                                                            like

_______________________________________________________________________________ Reason                                                 because

                                                            for                                       since

                                                            as

                                                            due to (reduced form)

_________________________________________________________________________________

Result                    so                            so that                              therefore

                                                                                                     as a result

                                                                                                     consequently

                                                                                                     thus

_________________________________________________________________________________

Contrast                 but                         though                               still

                                                            although                            nevertheless

                                                            even though                      on the other hand

                               yet                        while                                 in contrast

                                                            in spite of (reduced form) instead

                                                                                                   on the contrary

                                                                                                   however

_________________________________________________________________________________

Condition                or (nor)                 if                                     otherwise

(or alternative)                                     unless

                                                           whether (or not)

                                                           when

                                                           in order that

_________________________________________________________________________________

Repetition or         colon                      that is to say                     for example (e.g.)

example or                                                                                  to illustrate

explanation                                                                                  in fact

                                                                                                   for instance

                                                                                                   specifically

                                                                                                   in other words (i.e.)