(127-618) Crisis Phase (January 1, 1902-April 30, 1918): The Wahhabi tribe led by Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud and the Hashemite clan of the Quraish tribe led by Hussein ibn-Ali (Sherif Hussein) competed for control of the Arabian peninsula (primarily the provinces of Najd and Hijaz) beginning in 1902. Wahabbi tribesmen captured the Hasa region in May 1913. Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud Abdul requested military assistance from Britain in July 1915, and Britain agreed to provide military assistance (weapons and ammunition) to Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud in October 1915. Aziz ibn-Saud and the British signed a treaty of friendship on December 26, 1915. Hussein ibn-Ali proclaimed the establishment of an Arab state (Hijaz province) on June 27, 1916, and he was proclaimed "King of the Arabs" in Mecca on October 29, 1916. Britain, France, and Russia provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to King Hussein ibn-Ali on November 6, 1916. Britain provided military assistance (weapons and ammunition) to Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud in March 1918 and August 1918.

(127-619) Conflict Phase (May 1, 1918-December 23, 1925): Ikhwan (fundamentalist Wahhabi) tribesmen attacked Hashemite tribesmen near the village of al-Khurma in May 1918, resulting in the deaths of 14 Hashemite tribesmen. Hashemite tribesmen attacked Khurma in June 1918, resulting in the deaths of 28 Hashemite tribesmen. Hashemite tribesmen led by Amir Shakir and Ikhwan (fundamentalist Wahhabi) tribesmen clashed near al-Khurma in July-August 1918. Hashemite tribesmen commanded by Abdullah ibn-Hussein, son of King Hussein ibn-Ali, captured Turabah on May 21, 1919. Hashemite tribesmen were defeated by Wahabbi tribesmen led by Khalid ibn-Mansur near Turabah on May 25-26, 1919, resulting in the deaths of some 1,350 Hashemite tribesmen. Britain mediated a cessation of military hostilities in August 1920. Ikhwan tribesmen attacked Jahra, Kuwait on October 10, 1920, resulting in the deaths of some 200 Kuwaitis. Abdullah ibn-Hussein became Amir of Transjordan in 1921. Faisal ibn-Hussein, son of King Hussein ibn-Ali, became King of Iraq in August 1921. Wahhabi and Ikhwan tribesmen captured the emirate of Jabal Shammar on November 21, 1921. Ikhwan tribesmen attacked Iraqi troops in Abu al-Ghar and Shagra (British mandate of Iraq) on March 11, 1922. Representatives of Britain and Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud signed the Treaty of al-Muhammara on May 5, 1922. Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud and Sir Percy Cox of Britain held negotiations in al-Uqair on November 21-26, 1922. Representatives of Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud and Sir Percy Cox of Britain signed the al-Uqair Protocols on December 2, 1922, which provided for Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud’s recognition of the border of Iraq. Colonel Knox of Britain mediated negotiations concerning border problems between Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud, King Faisal of Iraq, and King Abdullah of Transjordan in Kuwait from December 17, 1923 to April 12, 1924. Ikhwan tribesmen led by Faisal al-Dawish attacked Diwaniya, Iraq on March 14, 1924, resulting in the deaths of some 150 individuals. Wahhabi tribesmen led by Khalid ibn-Luwai attacked the Hijaz province beginning on August 29, 1924, and captured Ta’if on September 5, 1924, resulting in the massacre of some 400 individuals. King Hussein ibn-Ali requested military assistance from the British in September 1924, but the British government declared its neutrality in the conflict. Wahhabi tribesmen captured Hada on September 26, 1924. Some 1,500 merchants fled from Mecca to Jeddah. King Hussein ibn-Ali abdicated on October 3, 1924, and Ali ibn-Hussein was proclaimed King of Hijaz on October 6, 1924. King Ali ibn-Hussein offered to negotiate with Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud on October 5, 1924, but Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud rejected the negotiation offer. Wahhabi tribesmen led by Khalid ibn-Luwai captured Mecca on October 18, 1924. Ikhwan tribesmen led by Faisal al-Dawish attacked Dhafir, Iraq on December 26, 1924, resulting in the deaths of some 50 individuals. Some 6,000 Ikhwan tribesmen began a seige of Jeddah on January 6, 1925. King Faud of Egypt sent a commission of inquiry to the Arabian peninsula on September 10-October 4, 1925 (the commission investigated allegations that religious monuments had been damaged by Wahhabi tribesmen in Medina). Wahhabi tribesmen captured Medina (al-Madina) on December 5, 1925. King Ali ibn-Hussein abdicated on December 19, 1925, and fled to Iraq on December 22, 1925. Wahhabi tribesmen captured Jeddah on December 23, 1925. Some 5,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(127-620) Post-Conflict Phase (December 24, 1925-November 30, 1928): Abdul Aziz ibn-Saud was proclaimed King of the Hijaz and Sultan of Najd on January 8, 1926. Britain and France provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of King Ibn Saud. The Soviet Union provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of King Ibn Saud on February 16, 1926. Representatives of Britain and the Kingdom of Nadj-Hijaz signed the Treaty of Jeddah on May 20, 1927, which provided for British recognition of the independence of the Kingdom of Najd-Hijaz. Ikhwan tribesmen clashed with Iraqi troops near Busayya on November 5, 1927, resulting in the deaths of 20 individuals. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between December 1925 and November 1928.

(127-621) Conflict Phase (December 1, 1928-January 10, 1930): Ikhwan tribesmen led by Faisal al-Dawish and Ibn Bijad rebelled against the government of King Saud beginning in December 1928. Some 30,000 government troops defeated some 10,000 Ikhwan tribesmen near Sibila on March 30-31, 1929, resulting in the deaths of some 500 rebels and 200 government soldiers. Britain agreed to a requested for military assistance (weapons and ammunition) by King Ibn Saud in May 1929. Ikhwan tribesmen and government troops clashed in the Jabal Shammar region in August 1929, resulting in the deaths of some 1,000 individuals. Ikhwan tribesmen attacked the Awazim tribe on October 5, 1929, resulting in the deaths of some 250 individuals. Faisal al-Dawish fled to Kuwait in October 1929, and government troops suppressed the rebellion on January 10, 1930 (when Ikhwan rebel leaders surrendered to the British). Some 2,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(127-622) Post-Conflict Phase (January 11, 1930-September 22, 1932): British officials extradited Faisal al-Dawish and two other Ikhwan leaders to King Ibn-Saud on January 27-28, 1930 (Faisal al-Dawish died in prison in Riyadh on October 3, 1931). King Ibn-Saud and King Faisal of Iraq signed a peace treaty on board the British naval ship Lupin in the Persian Gulf on February 22, 1930. King Saud consolidated his control over most of the Arabian peninsula, and the Kingdom of Najd-Hijaz was renamed Saudi Arabia on September 22, 1932.

[Sources: Brogan, 1992, 649-653; Clodfelter, 1992, 628; Habib 1978; Helms, 1981, 198-274; Kostiner 1993; Langer, 1972, 1093-1095; Leatherdale, 1983, 37-75; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1925, 271-324, 1925 (supplement), 5-6, 1926, 512, 1932, 608; Troeller, 1976, 34-235; Vassiliev 1998.]

(128-624) Conflict Phase (June 23, 1908-April 29, 1909): Government troops attacked and destroyed the Majlis building on June 23, 1908, resulting in the deaths of some 250 individuals. Mohammed Ali Shah dissolved the Majlis and declared martial law. Supporters of the Majlis (mujahidin) led by Sattar Khan and Baqir Khan rebelled against the Shah in Tabriz in northern Iran beginning on June 23, 1908. Mujahidin troops defeated government troops commanded by former Prime Minister ‘Ain al-Dawlah near Tabriz on October 5, 1908. Russia threatened to occupy Tabriz to protect the life and property of Russian citizens on October 17, 1908, but the rebels provided assurances to the Russian government that its citizens and property would be protected. Rebels assassinated Shuja’ al-Saltanah, governor and commander of government troops in Marand, on October 28, 1908. Mohammed Ali Shah formally abolished the constitution in January 1909. Rebel troops led by Samsam al-Saltanah occupied Isfahan on January 5, 1909. Some 12,000 government troops established a blockade around Tabriz on February 4, 1909. Governor Sardar Afkham of Rasht was killed during a rebellion on February 8, 1909. Some 6,000 Russian troops intervened in support of the Shah beginning on March 26, 1909. Government troops ended the blockade of Tabriz on April 25, 1909, and Russian troops captured Tabriz on April 29, 1909. Some 1,100 individuals, including 100 Russian soldiers, were killed during the conflict.

(128-625) Post-Conflict Phase (April 30, 1909-July 10, 1911): Mohammed Ali Shah restored the constitution on May 10, 1909. Nationalist troops led by Eprem Khan captured Tehran on July 12-13, 1909, resulting in the deaths of 30 nationalists and 27 government soldiers. Mohammed Ali Shah abdicated in favor of his son, Sultan Ahmad Mirza, on July 16, 1909 (Azad al-Mulk was appointed as regent). Elections to the Majlis were held in August 1909, and the Majlis convened on November 15, 1909. Prime Minister Sepahdar-i A’zam resigned on July 12, 1910, and Mustawfi al-Mamalek of the Democratic Party (DP) formed a government as prime minister on July 26, 1910. The government issued an ultimatum to the Mujahidin in Tehran to turn in their weapons on August 4, 1910, and government troops attacked the residence of Sattar Khan in Tehran on August 7, 1910. Government troops attacked the Mujahidin in Atabak Park (garden of the Atabak-i A’zam) in Tehran on August 7, 1910, resulting in the deaths of some 30 Mujahidin. Regent Azad al-Mulk died on September 22, 1910. Britain issued an ultimatum to the government on October 14, 1910, which demanded that government troops secure the road between Bushihr and Shiraz in southern Iran. Some 10,000 Iranians demonstrated against the British ultimatum and Russian troops in northern Iran on November 17, 1910. At the request of the Iranian government, Sweden agreed to provide civilian police assistance on January 3, 1911 (twenty Swedish police advisors arrived in the country in August 1911). Nasir al-Mulk was appointed as regent on February 8, 1911, and Sipahdar A’zam formed a government as prime minister on March 8, 1911. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between April 1909 and July 1911.

(128-626) Conflict Phase (July 11, 1911-September 27, 1911): Mohammed Ali Mirza (former Shah) and Arshad al-Dawlah led a rebellion against the government beginning on July 11, 1911. Government troops defeated Mohammed Ali Mirza’s troops near Firuzkuh on August 9, 1911. Arshad al-Dawlah’s troops were defeated by government troops near Tehran on September 4-5, 1911. Arshad al-Dawlah was captured and executed on September 6, 1911. Mohammed Ali Mirza’s troops were defeated by government troops near Savadkuh on September 8, 1911. Rebel troops led by Salar al-Dawlah were defeated by government troops near Bagh-i Shah, southwest of Tehran, on September 27, 1911. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(128-627) Post-Conflict Phase (September 28, 1911-April 25, 1926): British troops intervened in southern Iran to suppress tribal unrest beginning in October 1911. Russia issued an ultimatum to the government on November 11, 1911. Russia imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on November 17, 1911, and some 6,000 Russian troops occupied northern Iran beginning on November 20, 1911. Prime Minister Samsam al-Saltanah resigned on November 12, 1911, and he formed a new government on November 22, 1911. Russia issued another ultimatum to the government on November 29, 1911, and the Majlis rejected the ultimatum on December 1, 1911. Russian troops captured Tabriz on December 22-25, 1911, resulting in the deaths of some 500 individuals. The Majlis was dissolved after the government accepted the Russian ultimatum on December 24, 1911. Russian troops executed eight individuals in Tabriz on January 2, 1912 (several other individuals were executed through August 1912). Russian troops and Iranian demonstrators clashed in Enzeli and Rasht in January 1912, resulting in the deaths of 43 individuals. Mohammed Ali Mirza led another unsuccessful rebellion against the government in February 1912, and he departed Iran for Baku on March 10, 1912. Sultan Ahmad Mirza crowned himself as Shah of Persia on July 21, 1914. The Majlis was reconvened on November 1, 1914. The government declared its neutrality in the First World War in November 1914. Turkish troops invaded northern Iran in November 1914. Turkish troops withdrew from northern Iran on February 26, 1917. Several thousand Iranian Christians fled as refugees from northern Iran during the war, and several thousand of the refugees died of starvation. British troops intervened in northern Iran in 1918. British and Iranian representatives signed the Anglo-Persian Agreement in Tehran on August 9, 1919, which provided for British military assistance and economic assistance to the Iranian government. Soviet troops attacked anti-Bolshevik troops in northern Iran on May 18, 1920, and the Iranian government referred the matter to the League of Nations (LON) Council on May 19, 1920. Iranian communists established the Soviet Socialist Republic in Rasht in 1920. Cossack troops commanded by Colonel Reza Khan overthrew the government in Tehran on February 21, 1921. Sayyid Zia Tabatabai formed a government as prime minister on February 22, 1921, and Reza Khan was appointed as commander of the armed forces (Sardar Sepah) on February 23, 1921. Mohammad Mosaddeq, governor of Fars province, refused to accept the premiership of Sayyid Zia on February 24, 1921. Iranian and Soviet representatives signed the Iranian-Soviet Treaty of Friendship in Moscow on February 26, 1921, which provided for the withdrawal of Russian troops from northern Iran. Mohammad Mosaddeq resigned as governor of Fars province on March 5, 1921, and Nosrat al-Saltaneh was appointed as governor of the province on March 6, 1921. Reza Khan forced the resignation of Prime Minister Sayyid Zia on May 23, 1921, and Qavam es-Saltaneh formed a government as prime minister. British troops completed their withdrawal from the country on July 26, 1921. The Majlis reconvened on November 22, 1921. The Majlis reconvened on June 21, 1922. Reza Khan formed a government as prime minister, and Ahmad Shah fled from the country on October 28, 1923. Government troops launched a military offensive against Shaykh Khazal of Muhammarah on November 5, 1924, and Shaykh Khazal surrendered to government troops on December 6, 1924. The Majlis formally deposed Shah Ahmad and the Qajar Dynasty on October 31, 1925, and named Reza Khan as successor to the throne on December 12, 1925. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of Reza Khan on December 16, 1925. Reza Khan was formally crowned as Shah of the Pahlavi Dynasty on April 25, 1926. Some 5,000 individuals were killed, and some 25,000 individuals were displaced as a result of political violence between September 1911 and April 1926.

(128-629) Crisis Phase (August 25, 1941-November 15, 1945): British, Soviet, and US troops entered Iran on August 25-29, 1941. Reza Shah Pahlavi abdicated on September 16, 1941, and Mohammed Reza Pahlavi succeeded to the throne on September 17, 1941. The parliament (Majlis) convened on December 4, 1941. The Tudeh Party was established in 1941. Britain and the Soviet Union agreed to respect the territorial integrity and independence of Iran on January 29, 1942. Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Furughi resigned in March 1942, and Ali Suhaili formed a government as prime minister in March 1942. Prime Minister Suhaili resigned on July 30, 1942, and Ahmad Qavam formed a government as prime minister in August 1942. Prime Minister Qavam resigned in February 1943, and Ali Suhaili formed a government as prime minister on February 17, 1943. The Majlis adjourned on November 22, 1943, but convened again on February 26, 1944. Prime Minister Suhaili resigned on March 16, 1944, and Muhammad Sa’id formed a government as prime minister on March 18, 1944. Prime Minister Sa’id resigned in November 1944, and Murtiza Quli Bayat formed a government as prime minister in November 1944. Prime Minister Bayat resigned in April 1945, and Ibrahim Hakimi formed a government as prime minister on May 2, 1945. The government requested the withdrawal of US, British, and Soviet troops from the country on May 10, 1945. Sayyid Muhsin Sadr formed a government as prime minister in June 1945. Supporters of the left-wing Tudeh Party rebelled against the government in Mazandaran province in northern Iran beginning on August 23, 1945. Soviet troops intervened in support of the rebels on August 24, 1945, which prevented Iranian troops from suppressing the rebellion. Government troops suppressed the rebellion in Mazandaran province in September 1945. The Democratic Party of Azerbaijan (DPA) headed by Ja’far Pishihvari demanded autonomy for Azerbaijan province in northern Iran in September 1945. Prime Minister Sadr resigned in October 1945, and Ibrahim Hakimi formed a government as prime minister in October 1945. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(128-630) Conflict Phase (November 16, 1945-December 13, 1946): The DPA rebelled against the against the government in Azerbaijan province on November 16, 1945, and Soviet troops intervened against government troops near Qazvin on November 21, 1945. The DPA established an autonomous government headed by Prime Minister Ja’far Pishihvari in Tabriz on December 12, 1945, and Governor-General Murtiza Quli Bayat returned to Tehran on December 13, 1945. Britain, the Soviet Union, and the US agreed to established a commission to investigate the situation in Azerbaijan on January 5, 1946. The government referred the matter of Soviet troops in northern Iran to the United Nations (UN) Security Council on January 19, 1946, and the UN Security Council appealed for peaceful negotiations on January 30, 1946. Prime Minister Hakimi resigned on January 20, 1946, and Ahmad Qavam formed a government as prime minister on January 26, 1946. Prime Minister Qavam held negotiations with Soviet representatives in Moscow from February 19 to March 9, 1946. The Iranian government referred the matter of Soviet troops in northern Iran to the UN Security Council on March 19, 1946. Government and Soviet representatives agreed on the withdrawal of Soviet troops on April 4, 1946. Ja’far Pishihvari, leader of the autonomous government in Azerbaijan, held negotiations with government representatives in Tehran beginning on April 28, 1946. Soviet troops completed their withdrawal from northern Iran on May 9, 1946. Government and Azerbaijan representatives signed an agreement in Tariz on June 13, 1946, which provided for partial provincial autonomy for Azerbaijan. Prime Minister Qavam established the Democratic Party of Iran (DPI) on June 28, 1946. Prime Minister Qavam formed a coalition government on August 1, 1946, which included three representatives of the Tudeh Party. Britain decided to deploy Indian troops in Basra, Iraq to "safeguard Indian and British interests in south Persia" on August 2, 1946. Nasser Khan Qashqai of the Qashqai tribe led a rebellion against the government in Fars province beginning on September 21, 1946. Representatives of the government and Qashqai tribe signed a peace agreement on October 16, 1946. Prime Minister Qavam formed a government on October 19, 1946, which excluded the three representatives of the Tudeh Party. Some 15,000 government troops entered Azerbaijan province on December 10, 1946, and occupied Tabiz on December 13, 1946. Some 2,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(128-631) Post-Conflict Phase (December 14, 1946-April 5, 1957): Parliamentary elections were held on January 11, 1947. The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government on June 20, 1947, and the US established a military advisory mission in the country on October 6, 1947. The parliament nullified the oil agreement with the Soviet Union on October 22, 1947. Prime Minister Qavam resigned on December 10, 1947, and Ibrahim Hakimi formed a government as prime minister on December 28, 1947. Prime Minister Hakimi resigned on July 9, 1948, and Abdul Hussein Hajir formed a government as prime minister on July 10, 1948. Prime Minister Hajir resigned on November 6, 1948, and Mohammed Saed was elected prime minister by the Majlis on November 8, 1948. On February 5, 1949, Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi banned the Tudeh Party following an unsuccessful assassination attempt on February 4, 1949. On May 9, 1949, the Majlis revised the constitution to give the Shah the power to dissolve the Majlis. Former Prime Minister Abdul Hussein Hajir was assassinated in Tehran on November 4-5, 1949 (the assassin was executed on November 9, 1949). The US agreed to provide military assistance to the government on May 23, 1950. Prime Minister Ali Razmara was assassinated by a member of the Crusaders of Islam on March 7, 1951, and the Shah appointed Khali Fahimi as acting prime minister on March 7, 1951. Mohammed Mossadegh, leader of the National Front (NF), was elected prime minister by the Majlis on April 29, 1951. Prime Minister Mossadegh and the Majlis nationalized the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company on May 2, 1951. Five individuals were killed in political violence in Tehran on March 28, 1952, and the government imposed martial law in Tehran on March 30, 1952. Prime Minister Mossadegh resigned on July 16, 1952, and Ahmad Ghavam formed a government as prime minister on July 17, 1952. Some 300 individuals were killed in political violence on July 19-22, 1952. Mohammad Mossadegh was re-appointed as prime minister on July 22, 1952. Prime Minister Mossadegh was granted dictatorial powers for six months by the Majlis on August 11, 1952. Three individuals were killed in political violence in Tehran and Qum on January 2-4, 1953. The Majlis extended the prime minister’s dictatorial power for six months on January 19, 1953. Four individuals were killed in political violence in Tehran on March 1-4, 1953. On August 16, 1953, the Shah fled to Iraq after unsuccessfully attempting to dismiss Prime Minister Mossadegh. Prime Minister Mossadegh was deposed in a rebellion supported by the Shah (and funded by the US Central Intelligence Agency) on August 19, 1953, resulting in the deaths of 300 individuals. The Shah returned to Iran on August 22, 1953, and appointed Major General Gazollah Zahedi as prime minister on August 23, 1953. The US provided economic assistance to the government of Prime Minister Zahedi on September 5, 1953. Iranian government troops and police fired on demonstrators in Tehran on November 12, 1953, resulting in the deaths of two supporters of former Prime Minister Mossadegh. The Shah dissolved the Majlis on December 19, 1953. Anti-government demonstrations broke out on February 2, 1954, but the demonstrations were suppressed by police. Parliamentary elections were held in March 1954. Prime Minister Hussein Ala resigned on April 3, 1957, and Manouchehr Eghbal formed a government as prime minister on April 4, 1957. Prime Minister Eghbal ended martial on April 5, 1957. Some 650 individuals were killed in political violence between December 1946 and April 1957.

(128-632) Post-Crisis Phase (April 6, 1957-June 4, 1963): Parliamentary elections were held in July and August 1960, but the Shah nullified the results of the elections on September 1, 1960. Prime Minister Eghbal resigned on August 29, 1960, and Khosrow Hedayat formed a government as prime minister on August 31, 1960. Parliamentary elections were held in January 1961. The Shah dissolved the parliament on May 9, 1961. Prime Minister Assadollah Alam announced forthcoming parliamentary elections on April 23, 1963.

(128-633) Crisis Phase (June 5, 1963-September 15, 1978): Muslim religious leaders (mullahs) organized demonstrations against the government of Shah Reza Mohammad Pahlavi and his White Revolution (modernization and westernization) in several cities on June 5-6, 1963. Some 100 individuals were killed after government police were ordered to suppress the demonstrations. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a leading mullah, was exiled to Iraq following the demonstrations. Prime Minister Ali Mansur was assassinated by an Islamic fundamentalist on January 21, 1965, and Abbas Hoveida formed a government as prime minister on January 27, 1965. Parliamentary and Constituent Assembly elections were held on August 4, 1967, and the New Persia Party (Iran Novin) headed by Attalloh Khosravani won 180 out of 219 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Mardom Party won 30 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Iran Novin won 232 out of 279 seats in the Constituent Assembly, and the Mardom Party won 28 seats in the Constituent Assembly. Mohammed Reza Pahlavi was formally crowned as Shah of Iran on October 26, 1967. The US provided military assistance (500 military advisors) in support of the government. Five individuals were executed by the government for subversion in the Kurdistan region on January 5, 1973, and two individuals were executed by the government on January 11, 1973. Some 56 individuals were executed by the government between January 1972 and January 1973. One US military advisor was killed by a rebel in Tehran on June 2, 1973. The US sent an additional 600 US military advisors in support of the government in 1973. Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi dissolved the two-party political system, and banned opposition political parties on March 2, 1975. Two US military advisors were killed by left-wing terrorists on May 21, 1975. Parliamentary elections were held on June 20, 1975, and the National Resurgence Party (NRP) won 268 out of 268 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Prime Minister Amir Abbas Hoveida resigned on August 6, 1977, and Jamshid Amouzegar formed a government as prime minister on August 7, 1977. The Union of National Front Forces (UNFF) headed by Karim Sanjabi and Dariush Foruhar was established in opposition to the government in December 1977. Muslim religious leaders mounted a campaign against the Shah’s modernization policies beginning in January 1978. Six individuals were killed during anti-government demonstrations in Qum in southern Iran on January 9, 1978. Nine individuals were killed during anti-government demonstrations in Tabriz on February 18-19, 1978, and twelve individuals were killed by government police in Tabriz on February 23, 1978. Some 35 individuals were killed in political violence in Yazd and Jahrom on March 26-April 2, 1978. Some 50 individuals were killed in political violence in Tehran and other cities on May 8-11, 1978. Prime Minister Jamshid Amouzegar resigned on August 27, 1978, and Jafar Sharif-Emami formed a government as prime minister on September 16, 1978. Some 100,000 individuals demonstrated against the government in Tehran on September 7, 1978, and the government imposed martial law in Tehran on September 8, 1978. Government troops suppressed anti-government demonstrations in Tehran on September 8, 1978, resulting in the deaths of some 250 individuals. President Jimmy Carter of the US expressed support for the Shah on September 10, 1978. Some 1,500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(128-634)  Conflict Phase (September 16, 1978-April 2, 1979): Rebels attacked government troops in Tabriz on September 16, 1978, resulting in the deaths of six government soldiers, one civilian, and two rebels. The parliament approved Jaffar Sharif Emami as prime minister on September 16, 1978. President Jimmy Carter of the US expressed support for the Shah on October 10, 1978. Government troops suppressed demonstrations in Tehran and other cities from October 22 to November 1, 1978, resulting in the deaths of some 58 individuals. Government troops fired on demonstrators in Tehran on November 4, 1978, resulting in the deaths of some 30 individuals. Prime Minister Jafaar Sharif-Emami resigned on November 5, 1978, and General Gholam Reza Azhari was appointed as prime minister on November 6, 1978. The Shah imposed martial law in Tehran on November 6, 1978. Libya offered military and financial assistance to opposition groups on November 22, 1978. Government troops suppressed demonstrations in Tehran and other cities on December 1-3, 1978, resulting in the deaths of some 70 individuals. Amnesty International (AI) condemned the Iranian government for the torture of political prisoners on December 11, 1978. Government troops suppressed demonstration in Isfahan on December 11-12, 1978, resulting in the deaths of some 50 individuals. President Jimmy Carter expressed support for the Shah on December 12, 1978. Twenty-nine individuals were killed in political violence in Meshed on December 23, 1978. The Shah appointed Shahpour Bakhtiar, a member of the UNFF, as prime minister on December 29, 1978. Shahpour Bakhtiar was expelled from the UNFF on December 30, 1978. Ayatollah Khomeini formed a provisional "revolutionary Islamic council" on January 13, 1979. Shah Mohammed Riza Pahlavi and Empress Farah departed for Egypt on January 16, 1979. The US expressed support for the government of Prime Minister Bakhtiar on January 17, 1979. Some 23 individuals were killed in political violence in Ahwaz and Dizful on January 18, 1979. Government troops killed some 85 demonstrators in Resht, Tabriz, and Tehran on January 26-28, 1979. Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran from exile in Paris on February 1, 1979, and appointed Mehdi Bazargan as head of a "shadow government" on February 5, 1979. The US expressed support for the government of Prime Minister Bakhtiar on February 6, 1979. Government troops and supporters of the Ayatollah Khomeini clashed in Tehran on February 9-11, 1979, resulting in the deaths of some 300 individuals. The government of Prime Minister Bakhtiar collapsed on February 11, 1979, and Mehdi Bazarghan formed a provisional government on February 12, 1979. Pakistan and the Soviet Union provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the provisional government on February 12, 1979. Government troops clashed with Turkoman rebels on March 26-April 2, 1979, resulting in the deaths of 50 individuals. A new constitution was approved in a referendum on March 30-31, 1979. Ayatollah Khomeini proclaimed the Islamic Republic of Iran on April 2, 1979. Some 10,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(128-635) Post-Conflict Phase (April 3, 1979-June 19, 1981): On April 10, 1979, the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) condemned the government for the executions of some 600 former members of the Shah’s military and police forces. Twenty-one individuals were executed by the government on May 8, 1979. The US condemned the government on May 9, 1979. Elections for the Constituent Council were held on August 3, 1979, and Islamic fundamentalists won 60 out of 73 seats. The Moslem People’s Republican Party (MPRP) and other political parties had boycotted the elections. The government proclaimed a law on August 8, 1979, which called for prison sentences for the publication of negative reports concerning the government of Iran. The International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) condemned the government of Iran for its press restrictions on August 14, 1979. Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan resigned on November 5, 1979. A new constitution was approved in a referendum on December 2-3, 1979. Abolhassan Bani-Sadr was elected president with some 75 percent of the vote on January 25, 1980. Abolhassan Bani-Sadr was inaugurated as president on February 4, 1980, and President Bani-Sadr was appointed as chairman of the Revolutionary Council on February 8, 1980. Parliamentary elections were held on March 14 and May 9, 1980, and the Majlis convened on May 28, 1980. The government suppressed a military rebellion on July 10, 1980, and 36 military personnel were executed for their involvement in the military rebellion. Mohammed Ali Radjai was appointed as prime minister on August 20, 1980. Amnesty International (AI) called for an end to executions on August 29, 1980. Some 8,000 individuals were executed by the government in 1979 and 1980. 

(128-637) Post-Conflict Phase (April 16, 2003-present):  Parliamentary elections were held on February 20 and May 7, 2004, and conservatives won 54 percent (156 seats) of the vote.  Reformists won 13 percent (39 seats) of the vote.  Ten individuals were killed in political violence on June 13, 2005.  Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected president with 61.7 percent of the vote on June 24, 2005.

[Sources: Abrahamian 1982; Afary 1996; Arjomand 1988; Arnold et al., 1991, 147-155; Associated Press (AP), December 26, 1999, April 21, 2000, June 9, 2001, March 2, 2003;Azimi 1989; Banks and Muller, 1998, 428-436; Bayat 1991; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 165-167; Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 374-381; British Broadcasting Corporation (BCC), June 15, 2005; Browne 1966; Butterworth, 1976, 59-61; Clodfelter, 1992, 626, 976, 1036-1037, 1066-1068; Facts on File, December 8-14, 1946, March 2-8, 1951, March 28-April 3, 1952, July 11-17, 1952, July 18-24, 1952, January 1-8, 1953, February 27-March 5, 1953, August 14-20, 1953, September 4-10, 1953, November 6-12, 1953, January 14-20, 1973, June 3-9, 1973, March 8, 1975, August 13, 1977, February 24, 1978, April 21, 1978, May 12, 1978, September 15, 1978, September 29, 1978, November 10, 1978, December 15, 1978, December 31, 1978, January 12, 1979, January 19, 1979, February 2, 1979, February 9, 1979, February 16, 1979, April 6, 1979, May 11, 1979, June 14, 2001, August 9, 2001; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1909, 495-497, 1925 (vol. II), 676-682; Ghani 1998; Human Rights Watch (HRW) press release, June 3, 1998, September 14, 1999, September 28, 2000, October 11, 2000;Jessup, 1998, 319-325; Keesing's Record of World Events, January 19-26, 1946, August 24-31, 1946, February 15-22, 1947, January 17-24, 1948, November 20-27, 1948, February 5-12, 1949, November 5-12, 1949, November 21-28, 1953, October 1-8, 1960, February 6-13, 1965, November 25-December 2, 1967, June 23-29, 1975, August 11-17, 1975, January 5, 1979, July 27, 1979, March 21, 1980, April 25, 1980, December 26, 1980, November 12, 1982, October 1985, July 1989, June 1993, June 1994, August 1994, November 1994, April 1996, May 1997;; Langer, 1972, 897, 1097-1099, 1309-1311; McDaniel 1974; Middle East Record (MER), 1967; New York Times (NYT), June 13, 2005; Reuters, September 16, 1999, December 26, 1999, February 7, 2000, February 18, 2000, February 20, 2000, March 16, 2000, April 23, 2000, May 27, 2000, August 2, 2000, May 24, 2001, June 7, 2001, June 19, 2001; Survey of International Affairs (SIA-Middle East), 1925 (supplement), 203, 1945-1950, 56-105; Tillema, 1991, 145-146; Upton 1960.]

(129-638) Pre-Crisis Phase (December 7, 1907-February 6, 1919): Egyptian nationalists led by Mustapha Kamel established the Nationalist Party (Wafd) on December 7, 1907. Boutros Ghali, a Christian Copt, was appointed as prime minister on November 12, 1908, but he was assassinated by a Muslim nationalist on February 20, 1910. Britain declared a protectorate over Egypt on December 18, 1914.

(129-639) Crisis Phase (February 7, 1919-March 15, 1922): Saad Zaghlul Pasha, leader of the Wafd, demanded an end to the British protectorate over Egypt on February 7, 1919. Prime Minister Husayn Rushdi Pasha resigned on March 1, 1919. Saad Zaghul Pasha and other Wafd were arrested and deported to Malta on March 8, 1919. Egyptian nationalists rebelled against the British government beginning on March 18, 1919, when eight British government soldiers were killed in Deirut. The British government proclaimed martial law. The British government released Saad Zaghul Pasha from exile on April 7, 1919, and Husayn Rushdi Pasha formed a government as prime minister on April 9, 1919. Prime Minister Rushdi Pasha resigned on April 21, 1919, and Muhammad Said Pasha formed a government as prime minister on May 21, 1919. The Egyptian Legislative Assembly voted in favor of independence on March 10, 1920. Zaghlul Pasha returned to Egypt on April 5, 1921. Zaghlul Pasha and other Egyptian nationalists were arrested on December 23, 1921, and were deported to Seychelles on March 3, 1922. Britain terminated its protectorate over Egypt on February 28, 1922, and Egypt proclaimed its independence from Britain on March 15, 1922. Sultan Ahmad Fuad became King Faud I. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

[Sources: Langer, 1972, 870, 1075; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1925 (supplement), 83-84; Vatikiotis 1969/1991.]

(130-641) Post-Crisis Phase (January 1, 1910-August 4, 1912): Prime Minister Hakki Pasha resigned on September 29, 1910, and Sait Pasha formed a government as prime minister on September 30, 1910. The Liberal Union (Hurriyet ve Itilaf Firkasi - HIF) was established in opposition to the Young Turks in Constantinople on November 21, 1911. Sultan Mehmet V dissolved the parliament on January 17, 1912. Parliamentary elections were held in April 1912, and the Young Turks won a majority of the seats in the parliament. Prime Minister Sait Pasha resigned in June 1912, and Ghazi Ahmed Mukhtar formed a government as prime minister on July 21, 1912.

(130-642) Crisis Phase (August 5, 1912-May 18, 1919): Prime Minister Mukhtar dissolved parliament and proclaimed martial law on August 5, 1912. Prime Minister Mukhtar was replaced by Kamil Pasha in November 1912. Prime Minister Kamil Pasha was overthrown in a rebellion led by Enver Bey on January 23, 1913, and General Mahmud Shevket Pasha formed a government as prime minister on January 24, 1913. Prime Minister Shevket Pasha was assassinated on June 15, 1913. Enver Bey , Talat Pasha, and Cemal Pasha assumed control of the government following the assassination of Prime Minister Shevket Pasha, and Sait Halim Pasha was appointed as prime minister on June 16, 1913. Government troops attacked ethnic-Armenians in eastern Turkey beginning on April 8, 1915. On May 24, 1915, Britain, France, and Russia jointly condemned the government for atrocities against ethnic-Armenians. Some 600,000 Armenians were massacred in the Ottoman Empire between 1915 and 1918, and another 400,000 Armenian died as a result of deportations during this period. Sultan Mehmet V died on July 3, 1918, and he was succeeded by Mohammad VI (Sultan Mehmet VI) on July 4, 1918. Tevfik Pasha served as prime minister from November 11, 1918 to March 3, 1919. Allied troops (British and French) occupied Constantinople on December 8, 1918, and Damad Ferit Pasha formed a government as prime minister in Constantinople on March 4, 1919. Italian troops landed in Adalia on April 29, 1919, and Greek troops landed in Smyrna on May 14, 1919. Some one million individuals, mostly ethnic Armenians, were killed during the crisis.

(130-643) Conflict Phase (May 19, 1919-October 6, 1923): Mustafa Kemal Pasha began a nationalist rebellion against the government of Sultan Mehmet VI on May 19, 1919. Prime Minister Ferit Pasha resigned in September 1919, and Ali Riza formed a government as prime minister in Constantinople on October 5, 1919. Nationalist rebels attacked the French military garrison in Marash on January 21, 1920. Allied troops, including 30,000 British troops commanded by General George Milne, entered Constantinople on March 16, 1920. The Allies dissolved the Turkish parliament in Constantinople on April 11, 1920. Mustafa Kemal Pasha established a provisional nationalist government in Angora (Ankara) on April 23, 1920. The nationalist government negotiated an agreement with Russia to receive military assistance from the Russians. Greek troops launched a military offensive against the nationalist rebels on June 22, 1920, and defeated nationalist rebels near Alashehr on June 24, 1920. Greek troops captured Adrianople on July 25, 1920. The Allied countries issued an ultimatum to the Turkish government in Constantinople on July 19, 1920, and representatives of the Turkish government signed the Treaty of Sevres on August 10, 1920. The Communist Party of Turkey (CPT) was established on September 10, 1920. Kemal Pasha and the Italian government signed an agreement on March 13, 1921, which provided for the withdrawal of Italian troops from Anatolia in June 1921. Greek troops launched a military offensive against nationalist rebels on March 23, 1921, and Greek troops captured Eski Shehir on July 19, 1921. Turkish nationalist rebels launched a military offensive against Greek troops on September 5, 1921. Nationalist rebels commanded by Kemal Pasha defeated Greek troops near the Sakarya river on September 16, 1921, resulting in the deaths of 3,897 Greek troops and 18,000 Turkish troops. Greek troops remained in Smyrna on the Aegean coast. Greece requested permission from the Allied Supreme Council (ASC) to occupy Constantinople on July 29, 1922, but the ASC rejected the request on July 31, 1922. Turkish nationalist rebels launched a military offensive against Greek troops on August 18, 1922. Nationalist rebels captured Smyrna on September 11, 1922, resulting in the deaths of some 30,000 Armenians and other Christians. Some 1.2 million ethnic Greeks and Armenians fled as refugees to Greece during the following 15 months. British troops landed at Chanakkale (Chanaq) on September 16, 1922. Representatives of the Turkish nationalists and the Allied countries signed an armistice in Mudania on October 11, 1922, and Greece agreed to the armistice on October 14, 1922. Kemal Pasha proclaimed the abolition of the sultanate and Ottoman Empire on November 1, 1922, and Sultan Mehmet VI fled from Istanbul on a British ship on November 17, 1922. Abdul Mejid Efendi was elected as Caliph by the National Assembly on November 18, 1922. Kemal Pasha dissolved the National Assembly on April 16, 1923, and parliamentary elections were held in June-July 1923. Turkey and the Allied countries signed the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923, which provided for the return of Thrace and Adrianople to Turkey. The National Assembly convened on August 9, 1923. Allied troops completed their withdrawal from Constantinople on October 5, 1923, and nationalist troops occupied Constantinople on October 6, 1923. Some 440,000 Armenians, 30,000 Greek soldiers, and 20,000 Turkish government soldiers were killed during the conflict.

(130-644) Post-Conflict Phase (October 7, 1923-November 11, 1938): The National Assembly formally proclaimed the Turkish Republic on October 23, 1923, and Kemal Pasha (Kemal Ataturk) was elected president by the National Assembly on October 29, 1923. The National Assembly adopted a constitution on April 20, 1924. The Turkish parliament approved the Law on the Maintenance of Order (Takrir-i Sukun Kanunu) in March 1925, which led to the arrest of some 7,500 individuals for anti-government activities and the execution of 660 individuals. The Progressive Republican Party (Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Firkasi - TCF) was established on November 17, 1924, and was disbanded by the government on June 3, 1925. The government suppressed an attempted assassination of President Kemal Ataturk on June 15, 1926. On July 12, 1926, sixteen individuals were convicted and sentenced to death for their involvement in the attempted assassination. Parliamentary elections were held on September 2, 1927, and President Kemal Ataturk was re-elected by the National Assembly on November 1, 1927. The government suppressed a Muslim rebellion near Smyrna on December 23, 1930, and 28 individuals were executed for their involvement in the rebellion. President Kemal Ataturk was re-elected by the National Assembly on May 4, 1931. Parliamentary elections were held in February 1935, and President Kemal Ataturk was re-elected by the National Assembly on March 1, 1935. Prime Minister Ismet Inonu resigned on October 25, 1937, and Mahmut Celal (Celal Bayar) formed a government as prime minister on October 26, 1937. President Kemal Ataturk died in Istanbul on November 10, 1938, and the National Assembly elected Ismet Inonu as president on November 11, 1938. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between October 1923 and November 1938.

(130-645) Post-Crisis Phase (November 12, 1938-May 20, 1960): Prime Minister Celal Bayar resigned on January 25, 1939, and Refik Saydam formed a government as prime minister on January 26, 1939. Parliamentary elections were held on February 28, 1943, and the Republican People’s Party (RPP) won 455 out of 455 seats in the National Assembly. President Ismet Inonu was re-elected by the National Assembly on March 8, 1943. The Democratic Party (Demokrat Parti - DP) was established by Adnan Menderes, Mehmed Fuad Koprulu, Refik Koraltan, and Celal Bayar on January 7, 1946. Parliamentary elections were held on July 21, 1946, and the RPP won 395 out of 465 seats in the National Assembly. The DP won 64 out of 465 seats in the National Assembly, but the DP claimed election fraud. Recep Peker of the RPP formed a government as prime minister on August 7, 1946. President Ismet Inonu was re-elected by the National Assembly on August 5, 1946. Prime Minister Peker resigned on September 9, 1947, and Hassan Saka formed a government as prime minister on September 10, 1947. Parliamentary elections were held on May 14, 1950, and the DP won 408 out of 487 seats in the National Assembly. The RPP won 69 seats in the National Assembly. Celal Bayer of the DP was elected president by the National Assembly, and Adnan Menderes was appointed as prime minister on May 22, 1950. Parliamentary elections were held on May 2, 1954, and the Democratic Party (DP) headed by Prime Minister Adnan Menderes won 503 seats in the National Assembly. The Republican People’s Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi - CHP) won 31 seats in the National Assembly. Students demonstrated against the government in Istanbul on September 6-7, 1955, and the government declared martial law in Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir. The Freedom Party (Hurriyet Partisi - HP) broke away from the DP in December 1955. President Celal Bayar dissolved the parliament on September 11, 1957. Parliamentary elections were held on October 27, 1957, and the DP won 424 seats in the National Assembly. The CHP won 178 seats in the National Assembly. Two individuals were killed in political violence in Gaziantep on October 29, 1957. The RPP claimed elected fraud in 15 provinces on October 31, 1957. President Bayar was re-elected by the National Assembly on November 1, 1957. Nine military officers were arrested for plotting to overthrow the government in December 1957. Government police and students clashed in Istanbul and Ankara on April 28-29, 1960, resulting in the deaths of ten students and two government policemen.

(130-646) Crisis Phase (May 21, 1960-October 27, 1965): The government declared martial law throughout the country on May 21, 1960. President Bayar and Prime Minister Menderes were overthrown in a military rebellion led by Lt. General Jemal Gursel on May 27, 1960, and the 39-member National Unity Committee (Milli Birlik Komitesi - MBK) headed by Lt. General Gursel took control of the government on May 28, 1960. The MBK banned political party activity on May 28, 1960. Three individuals were killed in Ankara during the military rebellion. Britain, France, West Germany, and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on May 30, 1960, and the Soviet Union provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government on May 31, 1960. The DP was suspended on August 31, 1960, and the party was dissolved on September 29, 1960. The Constitutional Assembly convened on January 6, 1961, and the government lifted the ban on political party activity on January 13, 1961. A new constitution was approved by 62 percent of the vote in a referendum on July 9, 1961. Former Prime Minister Menderes was executed by the government on September 17, 1961. Parliamentary elections were held on October 15, 1961, and the CHP won 173 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. The Justice Party (Adalet Partisi - AP) won 158 seats in the National Assembly. Ismet Inonu of the RPP formed a coalition government as prime minister on November 20, 1961. General Gursel was elected president by the National Assembly on October 26, 1961. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion at the Turkish Military Academy led by Colonel Talat Aydemir in Ankara on February 22, 1962. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion at the Turkish Military Academy in Ankara on May 21, 1963. Prime Minister Inonu resigned on Decenver 2, 1963, but he formed a coalition government as prime minister on December 25, 1963. Prime Minister Inonu resigned on February 13, 1965, and Suat Hayri Urguplu formed an interim government as prime minister on February 21, 1965. Parliamentary elections were held on October 10, 1965, and the AP won 240 out of 450 in the National Assembly. The CHP won 134 seats in the National Assembly. Prime Minister Urguplu resigned on October 22, 1965, and Suleyman Demirel of the AP formed a government as prime minister on October 27, 1965. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(130-647) Post-Crisis Phase (October 28, 1965-April 25, 1971): General Cevdet Sunay was elected president by the National Assembly on March 28, 1966. Parliamentary elections were held in 1969, and the AP won 256 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. The CHP won 143 seats in the National Assembly. The Turkish People’s Liberation Army (Turkiye halk Kurtulus Ordusu - THKO) was established by Deniz Gezmis in opposition to the government in 1970. Prime Minister Demirel resigned on March 12, 1971.

(130-648) Crisis Phase (April 26, 1971-March 31, 1987): Prime Minister Nihat Erim imposed martial law on April 26, 1971. Deniz Gezmis and 17 other members of the THKO were sentenced to death on October 9, 1971, and Deniz Gezmiz was executed on May 6, 1972. Five members of the THKO were sentenced to death on December 27, 1971. Prime Minister Erim resigned in April 1972. The Islamic fundamentalist Nationalist Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi - MSP) was established in October 1972. Fahri Koruturk was elected president by the National Assembly on April 6, 1973. Prime Minister Ferit Melen resigned on April 7, 1973, and Naim Talu formed a coalition government as prime minister on April 15, 1973. Parliamentary elections were held on October 14, 1973, and the CHP won 185 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. The AP won 149 seats in the National Assembly. Fahri Koruturk was elected president by the National Assembly in 1973. Bulent Ecevit of the CHP was appointed prime minister in January 1974. Prime Minister Ecevit resigned on September 18, 1974, and Sadi Irmak formed a government as prime minister on November 17, 1974 (Prime Minister Irmak’s government was defeated on a vote of no-confidence on November 29, 1974). Government police and demonstrators clashed in Malatya province on February 16, 1975, resulting in the deaths of four individuals. Suleyman Demirel formed a National Front (NF) coalition government on March 31, 1975. Parliamentary elections were held on June 5, 1977, and the CHP headed by Bulent Ecevit won 213 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. The AP headed by Suleyman Demirel won 189 seats in the National Assembly, and the MSP headed by Necmettin Erbakan won 24 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. Suleyman Demirel of the AP formed a coalition government, which consisted of the AP, MSP, and National Action Party (Milliyetci Hareket Partisi - MHP) headed by Alparslan Turkes, in August 1977. Municipal elections were held on December 11, 1977. Some 110 individuals were killed in political violence between August and December 1977. Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel’s coalition government collapsed as a result of a vote of no-confidence in the National Assembly on December 31, 1977. Eight individuals were killed in political violence near Ankara on August 8-11, 1978. Six members of the Labor Party (LP) were killed in Ankara on October 8, 1978. The government declared martial law in 13 provinces on December 25, 1978.  Some 600 individuals were killed in political violence in 1978. Special parliamentary elections were held on October 14, 1979, and the AP won five out of five of the contested seats in the National Assembly. Six individuals were killed in election-related violence on October 14, 1979. Prime Minister Ecevit resigned on October 16, 1979, and Suleyman Demirel of the AP formed a government as prime minister on November 12, 1979. Ihsan Sabri Caglayangil, president of the Senate, was appointed as interim president on April 6, 1980. Former Prime Minister Nihat Erim was assassinated by a member of the left-wing Revolutionary Way (Dev-Yol) on July 20, 1980. Prime Minister Demirel was overthrown in a military coup on September 10-11, 1980, and the National Security Council (NSC) headed by General Kenan Evren and Admiral Bulent Ulusu took control of the government on September 12, 1980. The NSC imposed martial law and banned political parties throughout the entire country on September 12, 1980. Admiral Bulent Ulusu formed a government as prime minister on September 21, 1980. Some 460 individuals were killed in political violence from September 1980 to August 1981. The NSC banned all political parties on October 16, 1981. Six members of the Revolutionary Left (Dev-Sol) were sentenced to death for political assassinations on November 16, 1981. Five members of Dev-Sol were sentenced to death for political assassinations in Izmir on March 15, 1982. A new constitution was approved in a referendum on November 7, 1982, and General Evren was sworn in as president for a seven year term on November 9, 1982. President Evren lifted the ban on political parties on April 23, 1983. Nine members of the Communist Party of Turkey (CPT) were sentenced to death in Istanbul on May 25, 1983. The Welfare Party (Refah Partisi - RP) was established by Ali Turkmen on July 19, 1983. Parliamentary elections were held on November 6, 1983, and the Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi - ANAP) won 212 out of 400 seats in the National Assembly. The Populist Party (PP) won 117 seats in the National Assembly, and the Nationalist Democracy Party (Milliyetci Demokratik Partisi - MDP) won 71 seats in the National Assembly. The NSC was dissolved on December 6, 1983. Turgut Ozal of the ANAP formed a government as prime minister on December 13, 1983. The Democratic Left Party (Demokratik Sol Parti - DSP) was established in March 1984. Seven members of Dev-Sol were sentenced to death for political assassinations in Istanbul on February 17, 1984. Two members of the MHP were sentenced to death for political assassinations in Izmir on May 11, 1984. Thirteen members of Dev-Yol were sentenced to death in Izmir on May 21, 1984. Twenty-seven members of the Turkish Workers’ and Peasants’ Liberation Army (Turkiye Isci Koylu Kurtulus Ordusu - TIKKO) were sentenced to death in Ankara on May 28, 1984. Ten members of TIKKO were sentenced to death in Diyarbakir on June 14, 1984. Four members of the Turkish People’s Liberation Party - Front (Turkiye Halk Kurtulus Partisi-Cephesi - THKP-C) were sentenced to death in Istanbul on September 28, 1984. Ten members of the THKP-C were sentenced to death in Istanbul on November 8, 1984. Six members of the Revolutionary Way (Dev-Yol) were sentenced to death on January 29, 1985. Three members of the THKP-C were sentenced to death in Izmir on March 26, 1985. Eleven members of Dev-Yol were sentenced to death in Erzerum on November 11, 1985. Three members of the MHP were sentenced to death for political assassinations in Ankara on July 15, 1986. Three members of the THKP-C were sentenced to death on August 5, 1986. Two members of Dev-Yol were sentenced to death in Erzurum on February 16, 1987. The government lifted martial law through the country on July 19, 1987. Some 5,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(130-649) Post-Crisis Phase (July 20, 1987-present): Several offices of ANAP were bombed by terrorists on October 30-November 4, 1987, resulting in the death of one individual. Parliamentary elections were held on November 29, 1987, and the ANAP won 292 out of 450 seats in the National Assembly. The Social Democratic People’s Party (SDPP) won 99 seats in the National Assembly, and the True Path Party (Dogru Yol Partisi - DYP) won 59 seats in the National Assembly. On December 10, 1987, the government arrested eight members of the THKP-C for their involvement in the bombings of ANAP offices. President Kennan Evren announced the formation of a government headed by Prime Minister Ozal on December 21, 1987. Two members of Dev Sol were killed by police in Istanbul on May 1, 1988. Two members of the THKP-C were sentenced to death in Adana on June 28, 1988. Eight members of Dev-Yol were sentenced to death in Erzincan on August 21, 1988. Bulent Ecevit was elected chairman of the DSP on January 15, 1989. Local elections were held on March 26, 1989, and the ANAP won 22 percent of the vote. Two individuals were killed in election-related violence on March 26, 1989. Turgut Ozal was elected president by the National Assembly on October 31, 1989, and he was inaugurated as president on November 9, 1989. President Ozal appointed Yildirim Akbulut of the ANAP as prime minister on November 9, 1989. Mesut Yilmaz of Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi - ANAP) formed a government as prime minister on June 24, 1991. Parliamentary elections were held on October 20, 1991, and the True Path Party (Dogru Yol Partisi - DYP) won 178 out of 370 seats in the National Assembly. ANAP won 115 seats in the National Assembly, and the Social Democratic People’s Party (SDPP) won 88 seats in the National Assembly. Suleyman Demirel of the DYP formed a coalition government as prime minister on November 20, 1991. Eleven individuals were killed in a bombing in Istanbul on December 25, 1991. Government troops killed eleven members of Revolutionary Left (Dev-Sol) in Istanbul on April 17-18, 1992. Dev-Sol rebels killed five policemen in Istanbul on May 2, 1992. Dev-Sol rebels killed ten government policemen in Istanbul on March 18, 1993. President Ozal died on April 17, 1993, and Prime Minister Demirel was elected president by the National Assembly on May 16, 1993. Erdal Inonu of the Social Democratic People’s Party (SDPP) was appointed as acting-prime minister on May 16, 1993. Tansu Ciller of the DYP formed a coalition government as prime minister on June 25, 1993. Thirty-seven individuals were killed in a bombing in Sivas on July 3, 1993. Local elections were held on March 27, 1994, and the DYP won 23 percent of the vote. The ANAP won 21 percent of the vote, and the Welfare Party (Refah Partisi - RP) won 18 percent of the vote. The SDPP merged with the Republican People’s Party (Cumhuriyetci Halk Partisi - CHP) in 1994. Dursan Karatas, leader of the Dev-Sol, was arrested in Menton, France on September 9, 1994. Prime Minister Ciller resigned on September 20, 1995. President Demirel re-appointed Tansu Ciller as interim prime minister on October 31, 1995. Parliamentary elections were held on December 24, 1995, and the RP won 158 out of 550 seats in the National Assembly. The DYP won 135 seats in the National Assembly, and the ANAP won 132 seats in the National Assembly. Mesut Yilmaz of the ANAP formed a coalition government as prime minister on March 6, 1996. The DYP withdrew from the coalition government on May 24, 1996. Necmettin Erbakan, leader of the RP, formed a coalition government as prime minister on June 28, 1996. Mesut Yilmaz of the ANAP formed a government as prime minister on June 30, 1997. The Virtue Party (Fazilet Partisi - FP) was established by Recai Kutan on December 17, 1997. The government banned the RP on January 16, 1998, and the RP was formally dissolved on February 22, 1998. The government of Prime Minister Yilmaz collapsed following a vote of no-confidence on November 25, 1998. Bulent Ecevit of the DSP formed a government as prime minister on January 11, 1999. Parliamentary elections were held on April 18, 1999, and the Democratic Left Party (Demokratik Sol Partisi - DSP) won 136 out of 550 seats in the National Assembly. The Nationalist Action Party (Milliyetci Hareket Partisi - MHP) won 129 seats in the National Assembly, and the FP won 111 seats in the National Assembly. Prime Minister Ecevit formed a new coalition (DSP-ANAP-MHP) government on May 29, 1999. Ahmet Necdet Sezer, chief justice of the constitutional court, was elected president by the National Assembly on May 16, 2000. The Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi - AKP) was established by former members of the RP on August 14, 2001.  Parliamentary elections were held on November 3, 2002, and the AKP won 360 out of 550 seats in the National Assembly. The CHP won 190 seats in the National Assembly. Abdullah Gul of the AKP was appointed as prime minister on November 16, 2002, and the government of Prime Minister Gul was approved by the parliament on November 28, 2002.  Prime Minister Abdullah Gul resigned on March 11, 2003, and Recep Tayyip Erdogan, leader of the AKP, was named prime minister.

[Sources: Associated Press (AP), November 28, 2002, March 11, 2003; Banks and Muller, 1998, 930-938; Clodfelter, 1992, 621-622, 1066; Degenhardt, 1988, 375-384; Facts-on-File, May 12-18, 1950, May 19-25, 1950, April 21-27, 1960, May 26-June 1, 1960, November 16-22, 1961, February 22-28, 1962, March 8, 1975, June 11, 1977, December 31, 1977, October 27, 1978; Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1909, 562-584; Jessup, 1998, 759-764; Keesing's Record of World Events, August 17-24, 1946, November 2, 1957, July 2-9, 1960, September 24-October 1, 1960, November 26-December 3, 1960, March 6-13, 1965, October 23-30, 1965, April 23-29, 1973, May 28-June 3, 1973, February 4-10, 1974, January 1-5, 1975, April 28-May 4, 1975, March 14, 1980, October 31, 1980, January 2, 1981, April 1983, March 1985, July 1986, October 1991, November 1991, March 1993, April 1993, May 1993, July 1993, March 1994, September 1994, December 1994, March 1994, September 1995, October 1995, December 1995, May 1996, June 1996, June 1997, January 1998, February 1998, November 1998, December 1998, January 1999, April 1999, May 1999; Langer, 1972, 776-777, 1085-1088, 1297-1298; Lewis, 1955/1965, 86-131; Middle East Journal (MEJ), Summer 1984, Winter 1987, Summer 1988, Spring 1989, Winter 1991, Summer 1992; Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA), December 1997, September 1999; New York Times (NYT), November 17, 2002; Reuters, November 3, 2002, March 11, 2003; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1925 (supplement), 228-232; Zurcher 1993.]

(131-651) Post-Conflict Phase (March 24, 1910-December 31, 1918): France recognized the Spanish protectorate over northern Morocco on November 14, 1912.

(131-652) Conflict Phase (January 1, 1919-July 10, 1927): Berber tribesmen led by Mohamed Abd el-Krim led a rebellion against the Spanish Moroccan government beginning in January 1919. Spanish troops occupied Sheshuan (Xauen) on October 14, 1920. General Fernandes Silvestre’s troops occupied Annoual in the Rif mountains on January 15, 1921. Berber rebels attacked the Abarran military post on June 1, 1921, resulting in the deaths of some 179 government soldiers. Berber rebels attacked the Igueriben and Buy Meyan military posts beginning on July 16, 1921. Government troops and Berber rebels clashed near Annoual on July 21-22, 1921, resulting in the deaths of General Silvestre and some 8,000 government soldiers. Government troops recaptured Nador, Zeluan, and Monte Arruit between September 12 and October 24, 1921. Mohamed Abd el-Krim established the Rif Republic in 1922. Some 18,000 government troops were killed at the Sheshuan (Xauen) garrison and during a campaign by a Spanish relief force of 40,000 soldiers to evacuate the garrison. Mohamed Abd el-Krim released 290 government soldiers and 40 civilians for ransom on January 27, 1923. Berber rebels attacked the post of Tizzi Azza on June 5, 1923. Government and Berber representatives held negotiations in Alhucemas bay between July 2 and July 13, 1923. Spain offered the Berber rebels independence under a Spanish protectorate on July 15, 1923, but Mohamed Abd el-Krim rejected the offer on July 24, 1923. Government troops completed their withdrawal to the Moroccan coast on December 12, 1924. Berber rebels captured Tazarut on January 27, 1925. Berber rebels attacked French military positions in southern Morocco beginning on April 12-13, 1925. The French and Spanish governments agreed to cooperate against the Berber rebels on July 25, 1925. France and Spain rejected independence for the Rif Republic on August 14-15, 1925. French troops and Spanish troops waged a military offensive against Berber rebels between September 9 and October 13, 1925. Mohamed Abd el-Krim surrendered to French troops on May 23, 1926. Mohamed Abd el-Krim and his family were exiled on the island of Reunion in the Indian Ocean on September 2, 1926. Spanish troops suppressed the Berber rebellion on July 10, 1927. Some 10,000 French soldiers, 50,000 Spanish government soldiers, and 25,000 Berber rebels were killed during the conflict.

[Sources: Clodfelter, 1992, 637, 639-640; Fleming 1991; Langer, 1972, 991-995, 1079-1081; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1925 (supplement), 192-193; Woolman 1968.]

(132-654) Conflict Phase (March 12, 1912-April 17, 1917): Senussi tribesmen rebelled against the Italian government beginning on March 12, 1912. Government troops and Senussi tribesmen clashed near Ras al-Laban on September 17, 1912, resulting in the deaths of some 200 government soldiers and 1,200 Senussi tribesmen. Italian and Turkish representatives signed the Treaty of Lausanne on October 17, 1912, which provided for Turkish recognition of Italian sovereignty over Libyan territory. Government troops suppressed an Arab rebellion in the Tripolitanian region on March 23, 1913, and government troops occupied the Tripolitanian region. Government troops attacked Senussi tribesmen near Banna on April 13, 1913, resulting in the deaths of some 200 tribesmen. Government troops attacked Arab tribesmen near Sidi ‘Aziz on May 16, 1913, resulting in the deaths of 70 Italian soldiers. Some 3,000 Arab tribesmen led by Sheikh Suf al-Mahmudi and Sheikh Harb al-Naili fled to French Tunisia in 1913. Some 600 Arab tribesmen led by Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah al-Busayfi fled to the Fezzan region, but Sheikh al-Busayfi was killed by government troops near Mahrugah on December 24, 1913. Government troops and Senussi tribesmen clashed in the Benghazi region in February 1914, resulting in the deaths of some 280 tribesmen and 35 government soldiers. Government troops commanded by Colonel Antonio Miani occupied Ghat in the Fezzan region on August 12, 1914. Arab tribesmen rebelled against government troops in the Fezzan and Jabal regions beginning on September 28, 1914. Arab tribesmen led by Salim Abd al-Nabi al-Zintani defeated government troops near Sabha on November 27, 1914. Arab tribesmen captured Murzaq from government troops on December 6, 1914, and captured Ghat from government troops on December 23, 1914. Colonel Miani and government troops fled to Misurata in the Syrtica (Syrte) region on December 25, 1914. Government troops commanded by Colonel Miani were defeated by Arab tribesmen near al-Gardabiyya (Qasr bu Hadi) on April 28-29, 1915, resulting in the deaths of some 735 Italian/Libyan soldiers. Colonel Miani ordered the execution of some 700 Arab civilians in retaliation for the defeat near Gardabiyya. Colonel Milo Talbot of Britain facilitated negotiations between representatives of Italy and the Senussi tribe in al-Zuwaitina and Marmarica beginning on July 25, 1916. The Italian government and the Senussi tribe exchanged prisoners on March 27, 1917. Government and Senussi tribe representatives signed a formal ceasefire agreement (Akrama Agreement) on April 17, 1917. Some 16,000 individuals, including some 3,000 Italian government soldiers, were killed during the conflict.

(132-655) Post-Conflict Phase (April 18, 1917-May 21, 1922): Italian and Tripolitanian Arabs signed a peace treaty (al-Qanun al-Asasi) in Khalat al-Zaytunah on April 18, 1919. Italian and Senussi tribe representatives signed the Accord of al-Rajma in Rome on October 25, 1920, which provided for Italian recognition of Sayyid Muhammad Idris of Cyrenaica as head of the autonomous administration of the oases of Jaghbub, Aujila, Jalu, and Kufra. Italian troops occupied Misurata in the Syrtica (Syrte) region on January 26, 1922.

(132-656) Conflict Phase (May 22, 1922-January 24, 1932): Italian troops launched a military offensive against Senussi tribesmen led by Sheikh ‘Umar al-Mukhtar in western Libya beginning on May 22, 1922. Sayyid Muhammad Idris (Idris al-Senussi) fled into exile in Egypt on December 21, 1922. Italian troops occupied the Tripolitanian region in 1923. Italian troops seized the Senussi camp near Khawalan on March 6, 1923. Italian troops captured the village of Ajadabiya from Senussi tribesmen commanded by Qajja bin ‘Abdalla on April 21, 1923. General Luigi Bongiovanni, Italian governor of the Libyan colony, proclaimed null and void the previous agreements with the Senussi tribe on May 1, 1923. Some 800 Senussi tribesmen were killed by Italian troops between March 6 and September 3, 1923. Italian troops captured the oasis of Jaghbub on February 7, 1926. Senussi tribesmen defeated Italian troops near al-Rahaiba on March 28, 1927, resulting in the deaths of some 320 Italian/Libyan soldiers. Italian troops suppressed the Senussi rebellion in eastern Libya on January 3, 1928. Italian troops and Senussi tribesmen clashed near Tagrifit on March 24, 1928 and ‘Afiya on October 31, 1928. The Italian government administratively merged the Tripolitanian and Cyrenaican regions on January 24, 1929. Italian troops and Senussi tribesmen led by Sayyid al-Hasan clashed on January 8, 1930, resulting in the deaths of 80 tribesmen. Italian troops occupied the Fezzan region in 1930. Italian troops commanded by General Rodolfo Graziani defeated Senussi tribesmen near the oasis of al-Hawari on January 19, 1931, and Italian troops occupied Kufra on February 20, 1931. Italian troops detained some 100,000 members of the Senussi tribe in concentrations camps in the Syrtica desert. Sheikh ‘Umar al-Mukhtar, leader of Senussi tribesmen in the Cyrenaica region, was captured by Italian troops on September 12, 1931, and he was executed on September 16, 1931. Italian troops suppressed the Senussi rebellion in western Libya on January 24, 1932. Some 80,000 individuals, including 5,000 Italian government soldiers, died during the conflict.

(132-657) Post-Conflict Phase (January 25, 1932-December 24, 1951): Italy divided Libya into four provinces (Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi, Derna) on January 1, 1934. British troops captured Benghazi from Italian troops on November 20, 1942, and captured Tripoli from Italian troops on January 23, 1943. Libyan nationalists began a movement for independence from Italy on November 30, 1946. The League of Arab States (LAS) Council expressed support for Libyan independence on March 24, 1947, October 9, 1947, and February 22, 1948. The United Nations (UN) General Assembly approved a resolution on November 21, 1949, which called for the independence of Libya by January 1, 1952. Emir Sayyid Mohammed Idris was proclaimed King of Libya on December 4, 1950. The LAS expressed support for Libyan independence on February 2, 1951 and October 13, 1951. The National Assembly approved a constitution on October 7, 1951. Libya formally achieved its independence from Italy on December 24, 1951.

[Sources: Ahmida, 1994, 103-140; Brogan, 1992, 45-52; Butterworth, 1976, 134-135; Clodfelter, 1992, 640-641; Evans-Pritchard, 1949, 104-190; Jessup, 1998, 426-430; Langer, 1972, 1079-1081, 1292-1293; Pelt, 1970, 3-57.]

(133-659) Conflict Phase (May 1, 1913-September 25, 1920): The Iman of Oman, Salim bin Rashid al-Kharusi, and Sheikh Isa bin Salih led a tribal rebellion against the government beginning in May 1913. Rebel troops captured Nizwa in June 1913, and Samail Valley on July 5, 1913. Sultan Faisal bin Turki requested assistance from the British government, and Britain deployed some troops in support of the government in Matrah beginning on July 9, 1913. Sultan Faisal ibn-Turki died on October 4, 1913, and he was succeeded by his son, Taimur bin Faisal, on October 5, 1913. Britain and France provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of Sultan Taimur bin Faisal on November 15, 1913. Some 700 British troops defeated some 3,000 rebel troops near Mattrah in January 1915, resulting in the deaths of 350 rebels. Britain offered to mediate negotiations between the parties in February 1915, and negotiations between the parties began in April 1915. Rebel troops captured al-Rustaq on August 12, 1917. Iman Salim bin Rashid al-Kharusi was killed in 1920, and Mohammed bin Abdullah al-Khalili of the Bani Rawahah tribe became the Iman of Oman. Ronald Wingate of Britain mediated the signing of the Treaty of al-Sib by the parties on September 25, 1920, which provided for the recognition of the spiritual and political authority of the Iman by the Sultan. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(133-660) Post-Conflict Phase (September 26, 1920-September 30, 1954): The Iman of Oman, Mohammed bin Abdullah, died in May 1954, and Sheikh Ghalib bin Ali of the Bani Hina tribe claimed the leadership of the Imanate.

(133-661) Conflict Phase (October 1, 1954-January 31, 1960): Iman Ghalib bin Ali led a rebellion against the Sultan of Muscat and Oman, Sa’id bin Taimur, in central Oman beginning in October 1954. Saudi Arabia provided military assistance (weapons and ammunition) to the rebels. The Iman of Oman requested membership in the League of Arab States (LAS) on November 25, 1954. Government troops and rebels clashed on May 27, 1955, resulting in the deaths of some 12 individuals. The Sultan’s Muscat and Oman Field Force (MOFF) troops occupied the Iman’s capital of Nizwa on December 15, 1955, and Shiekh Ghalib bin Ali resigned as Iman on December 16, 1955. Sultan Sa’id bin Taimur arrived in Nizwa on December 24, 1955. Shiekh Ghalib bin Ali resumed the rebellion against the Sultan in June 1957. The Sultan requested British military assistance on July 16, 1957. The rebels gained control of the Nizwa region on July 19, 1957. Britain formally agreed to intervene in support of the government of Sultan Sa’id bin Taimur on July 20, 1957. Some 700 British troops commanded by Brgadier J. A. R. Robertson were deployed in support of the Sultan of Oman on July 24, 1957. British Royal Air Force (RAF) planes attacked rebel positions beginning on July 24, 1957. British military aircraft attacked rebels near Farq on August 2, 1957. British and government troops began a military offensive against the rebels on August 6, 1957, and captured Nizwa from the rebels on August 11, 1957. The Political Committee of the LAS referred the matter to the United Nations (UN) Security Council on August 12, 1957, but the UN Security Council rejected the LAS request to put the Oman situation on the council’s agenda. British troops completed their withdrawal from Oman on August 18, 1957. Saudi Arabia provided military assistance (weapons and ammunition) to the rebels in June 1958. British troops intervened in support of the government on November 1, 1958. British troops and rebels clashed in the Jabal Akhdhar region on January 26, 1959, resulting in the deaths of two rebels. Two British soldiers were accidently killed in the Jabal Akhdhar region on January 27, 1959. British and government troops suppressed the rebellion in January 1960. Some 100 individuals, including 40 rebels, eight government soldiers, and six British soldiers, were killed during the conflict.

(133-662) Post-Conflict Phase (February 1, 1960-June 8, 1965): One British soldier was killed by rebels near Rustaq, and three civilians were killed by rebels near Muscat in February 1961. Rebels exploded a bomb on the ship M. V. Dara off the coast of Dabai on April 17, 1961, resulting in the deaths of 236 individuals. Twenty-four individuals by killed by rebels in 1962. The Dhofar Liberation Front (DLF) was established in opposition to the government in 1963. Egypt and Iraq provided military assistance to the DLF. The Sultan invited the UN secretary-general to send a special representative to Oman to investigate conditions within the country (after several Arab countries made complaints to the UN) in 1963. Herbert de Ribbing of Sweden was appointed special representative, and he conducted a fact-finding mission in the country from May to June 1963. Herbert de Ribbing later reported that rebel activity had ceased several years earlier. The UN General Assembly established a five-member fact-finding committee (Afghanistan, Costa Rica, Nepal, Nigeria, Senegal) on December 11, 1963. The UN fact-finding committee issued a report in January 1965. Some 250 individuals were killed in political violence between February 1960 and June 1965.

(133-663) Conflict Phase (June 9, 1965-March 11, 1976): The DLF rebelled against the government in the Dhofar province beginning on June 9, 1965. Britain provided military assistance (300 military advisors) in support of the government from June 1965 to March 1977. The UN General Assembly approved a resolution on December 17, 1965, which blamed Britain for the civil and political problems in the country and called on Britain to end its involvement in the country. DFL rebels unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate Sultan Sa’id ibn-Taimur on April 28, 1966. The DLF became the Popular Front for the Liberation of the Occupied Arab Gulf (PFLOAG) on September 1, 1968. South Yemen provided military assistance (weapons, training, and military base) to the PFLOAG beginning in September 1968. China provided military assistance (weapons and training) to the PFLOAG from September 1968 to May 1973. The Soviet Union provided military assistance (weapons and training) to the PFLOAG beginning in September 1968. The US (military assistance), Saudi Arabia (financial assistance and weapons), and the United Arab Emirates (financial assistance) provided assistance to the government. PFLOAG rebels attacked Sultan’s Armed Forces (SAF) and British military bases in central Oman on June 11-12, 1970. Sultan Sa’id bin Taimur was deposed in a rebellion on July 23, 1970, and Sultan Qaboos bin Said took control of the government. Some 120 rebels, 31 SAF troops, and three British soldiers were killed in the conflict in 1971. Prime Minister Sayyid Tarik bin Taimur resigned on January 2, 1972. SAF troops and PFLOAG rebels clashed near Marbat on July 19, 1972, resulting in the deaths or wounding of some 100 rebels. Iran deployed some 3,500 troops and military aircraft in support of the government beginning on April 15, 1973. Cuba provided military assistance to the PFLOAG beginning in April 1973. Nineteen PFLOAG supporters were sentenced to death for plotting to assassinate Sultan Qaboos bin Said on June 17, 1973, and ten of the nineteen were executed by the government on June 20, 1973. The PFLOAG was renamed the People’s Front for the Liberation of Oman (PFLO) in August 1974. Jordan deployed 650 troops in support of the government from January to September 21, 1975. PFLO rebels shot down a British helicopter on March 9, 1975, resulting in the deaths of three British soldiers. Mahmoud Riad, secretary-general of the LAS, conducted a fact-finding mission in Dhofar province on March 17-19, 1975. Iranian troops attacked PFLO rebels in Dhofar province on October 17, 1975, resulting in the deaths of three Iranian soldiers. Government troops captured the remaining PFLO-controlled villages in southern Dhofar on December 1, 1975. The parties agreed to a cessation of military hostilities, which went into effect on March 11, 1976. Some 10,000 individuals were killed during the conflict, including 500 Iranian soldiers and 35 British soldiers.

(133-664) Post-Conflict Phase (March 12, 1976-December 31, 1979): PFLO rebels killed five British technicians in June 1978. Iran withdrew its remaining troops from Oman on February 21, 1979. The Soviet Union expressed support for the PFLO on April 30, 1979. Some 100 individuals were killed in political violence between March 1976 and December 1979.

(133-665) Post-Crisis Phase (January 1, 1980-present): Parliamentary elections were held on October 16, 1997. Parliamentary elections were held on September 14, 2000. The US provided de-mining assistance (mine-clearing training) to the government beginning in January 2001.  Parliamentary elections were held on October 4, 2003, which was the first election open to all adult citizens of Oman.  More than 500 candidates, including 15 women, ran for seats on the 83-member Consultative Assembly (Majlis al-Shura).

[Sources: Banks and Muller, 1998, 694-697; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 146-147; Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 645-646; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), October 5, 2003; Burrell, 1972, 55-58; Butterworth, 1976, 184-186, 367-369; Clodfelter, 1992, 1039, 626-627, 1040-1041; Degenhardt, 1988, 257-258; Donelan and Grieve, 1973, 112-115; Durch, 1978, 34-74; Facts on File, July 18-24, 1957, July 25-31, 1957, August 1-7, 1957, August 8-14, 1957, August 15-21, 1957, August 22-28, 1957, February 5-11, 1959, July 15-21, 1973, November 1, 1975; Jessup, 1998, 547-548; Joyce 1995; Joyce 1995; Keesing's Record of World Events, August 17-24, 1957, April 1-8, 1972, June 17-23, 1974, February 24-March 2, 1975, December 8-14, 1975, May 7, 1976, May 20, 1977, October 1997; Landen 1967; Langer, 1972, 1305-1306; Middle East Contemporary Survey (MECS), 1976-1977, 1977-1978, 1978-1979; Middle East Journal (MEJ), Summer 1955, Autumn 1957, Winter 1959, Middle East Record (MER), 1969-1970; New York Times (NYT), October 4, 2003; O’Neill, 1980, 213-233; Phillips 1967; Riphenburg 1998; Tillema, 1991, 190-191, 195-197; Townsend, 1977, 95-121; Weisburd, 1997, 187-188; Wilkenson 1987.]

(134-667) Conflict Phase (April 20, 1936-September 1, 1939): Palestinian Arabs led by Fawzi El Kaukji, a former Turkish military officer, rebelled against the British government beginning on April 20, 1936. The British government appointed a royal commission headed by Lord Peel in October 1936. On July 7, 1937, the Peel Commission recommended the partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states. Arab rebels killed Lewis Andrews, British commissioner of the Galilee district, on September 26, 1937. Palestinian Arabs killed five Palestinian Jews near Jerusalem on November 9, 1937, and members of the Irgun retaliated by killing several Palestinian Arabs on November 14, 1937. Palestinian Arabs killed four Palestinian Jews near Safed on March 28, 1938. The British government executed Shlomo Ben-Yosef, a Jewish nationalist, on June 29, 1938. Some 21 Palestinian Arabs were killed in a Jewish militant bombing in Haifa on July 6, 1938. The British government published the White Paper on May 17, 1939, which provided for an Arab-majority Palestinian state within ten years. David Raziel, commander of the Irgun, was arrested by British government police on May 19, 1939. Palestinian Arabs ended their rebellion against the British government on September 1, 1939. Some 3,000 individuals, including 2,200 Palestinian Arabs, 547 Palestinian Jews, and 126 British government soldiers, were killed during the conflict.

(134-668) Post-Conflict Phase (September 2, 1939-January 31, 1944): The Irgun split into two factions headed by David Raziel and Avraham Stern on July 17, 1940. Avraham Stern’s faction became known as the Fighters for the Freedom of Israel (Lohamei Herut Yisrael - LEHI).  David Raziel was killed during a joint British-Irgun mission against the Germans in Iraq on May 18, 1941, and Avraham Stern was killed by British government police in February 1942. Menachen Begin was appointed as commander of the Irgun in December 1943.

(134-669) Conflict Phase (February 1, 1944-May 15, 1948):  Members of the Irgun launched a rebellion against the British government beginning on February 1, 1944.  Jewish militants attacked several British immigration offices in Jerusalem and other cities on February 12, 1944.  The Irgun, Haganah, and LEHI ("Stern Gang") organizations established the United Resistance Movement (Tenuat Hameri) against the British government in October 1945.  Jewish militants attacked and destroyed railway tracks throughout the country on October 31-November 1, 1945, resulting in the deaths of one government policeman, one British government soldier, and two civilians.  On November 13, 1945, the US and Britain announced the establishment of a committee of inquiry to investigate the problems of European Jews and Palestine.  Jewish militants attacked a British police station in Jerusalem on November 27, 1945, resulting in the deaths of eight British government policemen and one Jewish militant.  Jewish militants attacked British government facilities in Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, and Jaffa on December 27, 1945, resulting in the deaths of ten British government personnel.  Jewish militants killed seven British government soldiers near Tel Aviv on April 25, 1946.  On July 25, 1946, the Anglo-American committee of inquiry proposed the partition of Palestine into Arab, Jewish, and British-controlled sectors.  Jewish militants bombed the King David Hotel in Jerusalem on July 22, 1946, resulting in the deaths of 41 Palestinian Arabs, 28 British, 17 Palestinian Jews, and five other individuals.  The United Resistance Movement was dissolved on August 23, 1946.  Jewish militants bombed the British Officers’ Club in Jerusalem on March 1, 1947, resulting in the deaths of 17 British government soldiers.  The British high commissioner declared martial law in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem, and some 20,000 British troops launched a military offensive against Jewish militants on March 2, 1947.  The British government lifted martial law in Jerusalem on March 17, 1947.  The United Nations (UN) Security Council established the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) on May 13, 1947.  Jewish militants executed two British soldiers near Nathanya on July 29, 1947.  On August 31, 1947, UNSCOP proposed that Palestine be partitioned into Jewish and Arab states.  Jewish militants bombed the police headquarters in Haifa on September 29, 1947, resulting in the deaths of four British policemen, four Arab policemen, and two Arab civilians.  The UN General Assembly approved the partition proposal on November 29, 1947.  Palestinian Arabs killed seven Jews near Jerusalem on November 30, 1947.  Some 20 Palestinian Arabs, five Palestinian Jews, and two British government soldiers were killed in political violence in Jaffa and Ramleh on December 12, 1947.  Irgun militants killed 11 Palestinian Arabs and two British government policemen in Jerusalem on December 29, 1947.  Palestinian Arabs bombed the headquarters of the Jewish Agency in Jerusalem on March 11, 1948, resulting in the deaths of 13 individuals.  Some 850 Palestinian Jews were killed by Arabs between December 1, 1947 and March 31, 1948.  Irgun militants attacked the Arab village of Deir Yassim on April 9, 1948, resulting in the deaths of some 254 Arabs and five Jewish militants. The UN Security Council appealed for a ceasefire on April 1 and April 18, 1948.  Jewish militants clashed with British troops and Arabs in the Jaffa region on April 25-May 12, 1948, resulting in the deaths of 32 Jewish militants. British troops withdrew from Jaffa, and Jewish militants captured Jaffa on May 13, 1948.  Britain’s mandate in Palestine ended on May 14, 1948, and the Jewish state of Israel was proclaimed on May 15, 1948.  Some 3,000 individuals, including 2,500 Jews, were killed during the conflict.  Some 750,000 Arabs were displaced during the conflict.

[Sources: Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 57-58; Butterworth, 1976, 66-68; Clodfelter, 1992, 631-632, 1032-1036; Donelan and Grieve, 1973, 45-50; Facts on File, September 28-October 4, 1947; Lapping, 1985, 104-148; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1929, 512; Tillema, 1991, 157-159.]

(135-671) Conflict Phase (July 18, 1925-June 1, 1927): The Druze tribe led by Sultan Pasha el-Attrash rebelled against the French government on July 18, 1925, and Druze tribesmen occupied Salkhad on July 20, 1925. Druze tribesmen led by Sultan al-Atrash attacked French government troops near Suwayda on August 2, 1925, resulting in the deaths of some 450 French government soldiers. French government troops suppressed a rebellion in Hama on October 4-7, 1925, resulting in the deaths of some 350 individuals. French government troops clashed with Druze tribesmen in Damascus on October 14-18, 1925, resulting in the deaths of some 1,500 individuals. Druze tribesmen captured Hasbaya on November 9, 1925, but French government troops recaptured the city on December 5, 1925. French government troops captured Suwayda on April 25, 1926. French government troops captured Maydan from Druze tribesmen on May 7, 1926, resulting in the deaths of some 600 individuals. French government troops launched a military offensive against Druze rebels in the Ghuta region on July 18-26, 1926, resulting in the deaths of some 1,500 individuals. French government troops suppressed the Druze rebellion on June 1, 1927. Some 8,000 individuals, including some 4,000 French government soldiers, were killed during the conflict.

(135-672) Post-Conflict Phase (June 2, 1927-April 17, 1946): The National Bloc, an alliance of nationalist groups led by Ibrahim Hannanu and Hashim Atassi, was established in 1928. The Constituent Assembly convened between June 9, 1928 and February 5, 1929, but it was unable to draft a constitution that was acceptable to the French. The French presented a constitution on May 22, 1930, which provided for an elected parliament and president. Parliamentary elections were held in January 1932, and the parliament elected Ahmed Ali Bey Abed as president in June 1932. France and Syria signed the French-Syria Treaty of Friendship and Alliance on September 9, 1936, which provided for the end of the mandate within three years. Parliamentary elections were held on November 30, 1936, and a nationalist government headed by President Hashim Atassi took office on December 21, 1936. Syria was proclaimed an independent state on September 16, 1941, but France attempted to regain control of Syria following World War II. French troops shelled Damascus on May 29-31, 1945, resulting in the deaths of some 500 individuals. The League of Arab States (LAS) Council expressed support for Syrian independence on June 6, 1945, and demanded the withdrawal of French government soldiers from Syria on June 8, 1945. Syria formally achieved its independence from the LON mandate under French administration on April 17, 1946. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in political violence between June 1927 and April 1946.

[Sources: Arslan, 1924, 239-247; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 50-51; Brogan, 1992, 358-367; Clodfelter, 1992, 629-630, 1031-1032; Jessup, 1998, 712-716; Khoury 1987; Langer, 1972, 1088-1090, 1298-1300; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1928, 328-332.]

(136-674) Conflict Phase (July 1, 1920-December 31, 1920): Iraqi Arab nationalists rebelled against the British government beginning in July 1920, and British troops suppressed the Arab nationalist rebellion in December 1920. Some 9,000 individuals, including 426 British government soldiers, were killed during the conflict.

(136-675) Post-Conflict Phase (January 1, 1921-October 3, 1932):