(166-848) Conflict Phase (October 25, 1903-March 7, 1907): Bondelzwart (Nama) tribesmen led by Willem Christian and Jakob Morenga rebelled against the German government beginning on October 25, 1903, when three German soldiers were killed by Bondelzwart tribesmen. Bondelzwart (Nama) tribesmen and German troops agreed to a ceasefire on December 27, 1903. Herero tribesmen led by Samuel Maharero rebelled against the German government beginning on January 12, 1904. Some 125 German settlers and soldiers were killed by Herero tribesmen on January 12-22, 1904. Bondelzwart (Nama) tribesmen and German representatives signed a peace agreement in Kalkfontein on January 27, 1904. German troops and Herero tribesmen clashed near Owikokorero on March 13, 1904, resulting in the deaths of 26 German soldiers. German troops and Herero tribesmen clashed near Okaharui on April 3, 1904, resulting in the deaths of 32 German soldiers. Colonel Leutwein was removed as commander of German troops in the colony on May 4, 1904, and Lt. General Lothar von Trotha took command of some 15,000 German troops in the colony on June 11, 1904. Herero tribesmen were defeated by German troops near Waterberg on August 11-12, 1904. Several thousand members of the Herero tribe, including Samuel Maharero, fled into the Omaheke desert between German Southwest Africa and Bechuanaland. The Nama (Hottentot) tribe led by Hendrik Witbooi rebelled against the German government beginning on October 3, 1904. German troops and Nama tribesmen clashed in the Auob valley on January 2-4, 1905, resulting in the deaths of 22 German soldiers. German troops and Nama tribesmen clashed in the eastern part of the colony on June 15-17, 1905, resulting in the deaths of 19 German soldiers. Nama tribesmen attacked the German station at Jerusalem on October 12, 1905, resulting in the deaths of seven Germans. German troops and Nama tribesmen clashed near Hartebeestmund on the northern bank of the Orange River on October 24, 1905, resulting in the deaths or wounding of 43 German soldiers. Henrik Witbooi was mortally wounded by German troops near Fahlgras on October 29, 1905, and Samuel Izaak took command of the Nama tribesmen on October 30, 1905. General Lothar von Trotha departed for Germany on November 17, 1905. Samuel Izaak and 139 Nama tribesmen, women, and children surrendered to German troops on November 23, 1905. Some 277 Nama tribesmen, women, and children surrendered to German troops on December 11, 1905, and some 119 Nama tribesmen, women, and children surrendered to German troops on December 24, 1905. Nama tribesmen led by Jakob Morenga attacked the German station at Jerusalem on March 21, 1906, resulting in the deaths of four German soldiers. Nama tribesmen attacked a German wagon train on March 26, 1906, resulting in the deaths of 11 German soldiers. Nama tribesmen attacked a German patrol on April 8, 1906, resulting in the deaths of nine German soldiers. German troops and Nama tribesmen clashed near Van Keois Vley on May 4-5, 1906, resulting in the deaths of 23 Nama tribesmen. Jakob Morenga surrendered to the British on May 7, 1906. Nama tribesmen attacked the German station at De Villierputz on May 21, 1906, resulting in the deaths of three German soldiers. Nama tribesmen attacked the German station at Tsamab on May 24, 1906, resulting in the deaths of 12 German soldiers. Colonel von Deimling assumed command of German troops in German Southwest Africa on July 6, 1906. Nama tribesmen led by Johannes Christian attacked the German station at Alurisfontein on August 6, 1906. German and Nama representatives signed a ceasefire agreement in Ukamas on December 23, 1906. The rebellion formally ended on March 7, 1907. Some 65,000 Hereros, 10,000 Namas, and 1,500 Germans were killed during the conflict.

(166-849) Post-Conflict (March 8, 1907-December 17, 1920): Jakob Morenga was killed by British police in Cape Colony on September 20, 1907. British troops landed near Luderitz Bay on September 19, 1914. Some 20,000 South African troops commanded by General Louis Botha invaded German Southwest Africa, and captured Swakopmund on January 14, 1915. South African troops defeated German troops near Riet and Treckkopje on April 26, 1915. South African troops captured Windhoek on May 12, 1915. German troops surrendered to South African troops near Otawi on July 9, 1915. Some 113 South African soldiers and 500 German soldiers were killed during the conflict. General Beves was appointed military governor on July 11, 1915. Sir Howard Gorges was appointed as administrator of Southwest Africa on October 30, 1915. The Allied Supreme Council (ASC) assigned German Southwest Africa as a mandate to South Africa on May 7, 1919. The League of Nations (LON) granted South Africa a mandate over Southwest Africa on December 17, 1920.

[Sources: Bridgman 1981; Clodfelter, 1992, 636, 752-753; Cooper 1991; Drechsler 1966; Goldblatt 1971; Kerina 1981; Jessup, 1998, 504-506; Langer, 1972, 891-892, 968, 1083; Parkenham, 1991, 602-615; Stoecker, 1986, 39-62.]

(167-851) Crisis Phase (January 1, 1891-July 30, 1905): The German government took control of the colony on January 1, 1891.

(167-852) Conflict Phase (July 31, 1905-June 30, 1906): Members of the Matumbi, Mbunga, Kichi, Ngoni, Ngindo and Pogoro tribes of German East Africa rebelled against the colonial government beginning on July 31, 1905. German troops executed Kinjikitile Ngwale, spiritual leader of the rebellion, in August 4, 1905. Bishop Cassian Spiss and five Benedictine missionaries were killed by Ngindo rebels on August 14, 1905. Some 8,000 Mbunga and Pogoro tribesmen attacked German troops in Mahenge on August 30, 1905. German troops suppressed the rebellion on June 30, 1906. Some 200,000 individuals died during the conflict.

(167-853) Post-Conflict Phase (July 1, 1906-December 31, 1920): British naval ships attacked German positions in Bagamoyo and Dar-es-Salaam beginning on August 8, 1914. The German naval ship Konigsberg sank the British naval ship Pegasus near Zanzibar on September 20, 1914. Some 1,000 German troops commanded by General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck defeated some 8,000 British troops near Tanga on November 2-5, 1914, resulting in the deaths or wounding of 817 British soldiers and 60 German soldiers. South African troops and German troops clashed near Salaita Hill on February 12, 1916, resulting in the deaths of 132 South African soldiers. British troops captured Tanga on July 7, 1916, and captured Bagamoyo on August 15, 1916. British troops captured Dar-es-Salaam on September 4, 1916. German troops defeated British troops near Mahiwa on October 10-18, 1917, resulting in the deaths of 96 German soldiers and 400 British soldiers. Some 2,000 German troops commanded by General Lettow-Vorbeck fled to Portuguese East Africa on November 18, 1917. German troops invaded British Rhodesia on November 2, 1918. German troops surrendered to British troops on November 25, 1918. Some 1,730 German soldiers, 11,300 British soldiers, and 52,000 African civilians were killed during the conflict. Britain was granted a League of Nations (LON) mandate over Tanganyika in 1920.

[Sources: Austen 1968; Clodfelter, 1992, 636, 753-755; Dumbuya 1995; Iliffe 1969; Langer, 1972, 881-884, 968-969, 1082-1083; Listowel 1965; Parkenham, 1991, 616-628.]

(168-855) Crisis Phase (June 14, 1913-September 14, 1914): The parliament approved the Immigration Act on June 14, 1913, which restricted the immigration and movement of Indians within the country. Indians led by Mohandas Gandhi protested against the discrimination. Prime Minister Botha proclaimed martial law on January 14, 1914 after miners went on strike near Johannesburg. James Hertzog withdrew from the SAP, and established the National Party (NP) in January 1914. Mohandas Gandhi departed for India on July 20, 1914 after achieving concessions from the government concerning the treatment of Indians in the country. Britain requested that South Africa invade German Southwest Africa in August 1914.

(168-856) Conflict Phase (September 15, 1914-February 28, 1915): Afrikaners (Boers) led by General Christiaan De Wet began a rebellion against the government on September 15, 1914. Prime Minister Botha proclaimed martial law. Britain offered military assistance to the South African government in September 1914, but South Africa declined the offer in October 1914. General C. F. Beyers, a leader of the Afrikaners, died in a drowning accident on December 8, 1914. Some 30,000 South African troops commanded by Prime Minister Botha and General Jan Christiaan Smuts suppressed the Afrikaner rebellion in February 1915. Some 325 individuals, including 132 government soldiers and 190 rebels, were killed during the conflict.

(168-857) Post-Conflict Phase (March 1, 1915-June 30, 1924): Parliamentary elections were held in October 1915, and the SAP won 54 out of 130 seats in the House of Assembly. The UP won 40 seats and the NP won 26 seats in the House of Assembly. Prime Minister Botha died on August 27, 1919, and General Smuts formed a government as prime minister. Parliamentary elections were held on March 10, 1920, and the NP won a plurality of 44 out of 130 seats in the House of Assembly. The SAP won 41 seats and the UP won 25 seats in the House of Assembly. Prime Minister Smuts formed a coalition government. The SAP and UP merged in November 1920. Parliamentary elections were held in February 1921, and the SAP won 79 out of 130 seats in the House of Assembly. The NP won 45 seats in the House of Assembly. Government police and members of an African religious sect headed by Enoch Mgijima clashed in May 1921, resulting in the deaths of 163 Africans. Coal miners and gold miners went on strike in Johannesburg beginning on January 1, 1922. Union workers rebelled against the government beginning on February 5, 1922. Government police and union workers clashed near Boksburg on February 27, 1922, resulting in the deaths of 180 workers and 50 policemen. Prime Minister Smuts declared martial law in Johannesburg on March 10, 1922. Government troops suppressed the rebellion on March 11-14, 1922, resulting in the deaths of some 153 individuals. Some 4,750 individuals were arrested, and eighteen individuals were sentenced to death for their involvement in the rebellion (although only four of the individuals were actually executed). Parliamentary elections were held on June 19, 1924, and the NP/Labour Party (LP) coalition won 81 (63 seats for the NL and 18 seats for the LP) out of 130 seats in the House of Assembly. The SAP/UP coalition won 53 seats in the House of Assembly. James Hertzog formed a NP/LP coalition government as prime minister on June 30, 1924. Some 600 individuals were killed in political violence between March 1915 and June 1924.

(168-858) Post-Crisis Phase (July 1, 1924-January 12, 1949): Parliamentary elections were held on May 26, 1948, and the Nationalist Party (NP) won 70 out of 150 seats in the House of Assembly. Daniel Malan, leader of the NP, formed a government as prime minister on June 3, 1948. Prime Minister Malan advocated a policy of racial segregation (apartheid).

(168-859) Crisis Phase (January 13, 1949-October 18, 1990): Africans (Zulus) and Indians rioted in Durben on January 13-14, 1949, resulting in the deaths of 87 Africans and 50 Indians. Africans rioted in protest of apartheid in Johannesburg on January 29, 1950. The House of Assembly approved the Separate Representation of Voters Act on May 14, 1950, which provided for the removal of non-whites from the common voters’ roll and their separate representation in parliament. The House of Assembly approved the Population Registration Act on May 16, 1950, which provided for the registration of the population, the racial classification of the population, and the issuance of identity cards. The House of Assembly approved the Group Areas Act on May 31, 1950, which provided for the assignment of separate areas of the country to different races of South Africans. India protested the bad treatment of Indians in South Africa, and referred the matter to the United Nations (UN) secretary-general on July 11, 1950. The House of Assembly approved the Suppression of Communism Act on June 20, 1950, and the Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA) dissolved itself on June 20, 1950. The Supreme Court overturned the Separate Representation of Voters Act on March 20, 1952. The House of Assembly approved the High Court of Parliament Act on May 15, 1952, which provided for a majority of parliament to overrule any judgment of the Supreme Court concerning legislation approved by parliament. The African National Congress (ANC) and the South African Indian Congress (SAIC) launched a civil disobedience campaign in protest of the apartheid policies of the government beginning on June 26, 1952, resulting in the arrests of some 8,500 individuals. The High Court of the Parliament upheld the validity of the Separate Representation of Voters Act on August 27, 1952. The Supreme Court declared invalid the High Court of Parliament Act on August 29, 1952. Africans rioted in New Brighton township in Port Elizabeth on October 18, 1952, resulting in the deaths of 12 individuals. The Appellate Division of the Supreme Court dismissed the government’s appeal of the Supreme Court’s invalidation of the High Court of Parliament Act on November 13, 1952. The South African parliament approved legislation on February 24, 1953, which gave Prime Minister Daniel Malan authority to enforce the apartheid laws. The UN General Assembly established a good offices commission for South Africa in December 1952. Parliamentary elections were held on April 15, 1953, and the NP won a majority of seats in the House of Assembly. Prime Minister Malan retired on October 29, 1954, and Johannes Strydom formed a government as prime minister on November 30, 1954. The UN good office commission was disbanded on May 31, 1955. The UN General Assembly condemned the apartheid policies of the South African government on October 12, 1955. Parliamentary elections were held on November 25, 1955, and the NP won 77 out of 89 seats in the Senate. The parliament re-approved the Separate Representation of Voters Act with a two-thirds majority vote in February 1956. The government ordered some 100,000 non-whites to leave their homes in Johannesburg within a year on August 25, 1956. Parliamentary elections were held on April 16, 1958, and the NP won 103 seats in the House of Assembly. Prime Minister Strydom died on August 24, 1958, and Hendrik Verwoerd formed a government as prime minister on September 3, 1958. The Pan-Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) was established in opposition to the government in April 1959. The parliament approved the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act on June 15, 1959, which provided for the abolition of African representation in the parliament and the establishment of Bantu national units (Bantustans) within the Union of South Africa. Government police fired on demonstrators in Sharpsville township and Langa on March 21, 1960, resulting in the deaths of 72 individuals. African workers began a strike in Cape Town and Vereeniging, Transvaal beginning on March 22, 1960. The government declared a state-of-emergency on March 30, 1960, resulting in the arrest and detention of 1,910 individuals. The parliament approved the Unlawful Organizations Act on April 5, 1960, which provided the government with the authority to outlaw organizations opposed to government policies. The government banned the ANC and PAC on April 8, 1960. Prime Minister Verwoerd survived an attempted assassination in Johannesburg on April 9, 1960. The Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act went into effect on June 30, 1960. The government lifted the state-of-emergency on August 31, 1960. Voters approved the establishment of a republic in a referendum on October 5, 1960. The UN General Assembly condemned the apartheid policies of the government on April 13, 1961. The government proclaimed the Republic of South Africa and withdrew from the Commonwealth of Nations on May 31, 1961. Charles Swart had been elected president on May 18, 1961. Nelson Mandela, secretary-general of the ANC, was arrested for subversion on August 16, 1962, and he was sentenced to five years imprisonment on November 7, 1962. The UN General Assembly recommended diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations), economic sanctions (trade embargo), and military sanctions (arms and ammunition embargo) against the government on November 6, 1962. Africans and government police clashed on November 22, 1962, resulting in the deaths of six Africans. Africans and government police clashed in Queenstown and Qamata on December 12, 1962, resulting in the deaths of 13 Africans and one policeman. Six Africans were sentenced to death in Umtata for murder on February 7, 1963. The UN Security Council imposed military sanctions (voluntary arms embargo) against the government on August 7, 1963. The UN Security Council condemned the government’s apartheid policies on December 4, 1963, and established a five-member fact-finding commission (Britain, Ghana, Morocco, Sweden, Yugoslavia) on January 27, 1964. Three Africans were sentenced to death for murder on March 16, 1964, and the individuals were executed in Pretoria on November 6, 1964. The UN fact-finding commission issued a report to the UN secretary-general on April 20, 1964. Nelson Mandela and seven other African leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment on June 12, 1964. The UN Security Council condemned the government’s apartheid policies in June 1964. The Commonwealth of Nations foreign ministers condemned the government’s apartheid policies on July 15, 1964. India imposed economic sanctions (trade embargo) and diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government in 1964. Three Africans were sentenced to death for murder on February 23, 1965. Parliamentary elections were held on March 30, 1966, and the NP won 126 out of 166 seats in the House of Assembly. Prime Minister Verwoerd was assassinated on September 6, 1966, and John Vorster formed a government as prime minister on September 13, 1966. One member of PAC was sentenced to death on October 20, 1966, and nine members of PAC were sentenced to death on December 14, 1966. The UN General Assembly requested that the UN Security Council impose mandatory economic and military sanctions against the government on December 2, 1968. The UN General Assembly condemned the government on November 21, 1969, December 11, 1969, and December 15, 1969. Parliamentary elections were held on April 22, 1970, and the NP won 117 out of 166 seats in the House of Assembly. The United Party (UP) won 47 seats in the House of Assembly. Britain, France, and the US vetoed a UN Security Council resolution on October 30, 1974, which would have expelled South Africa from the UN. The UN General Assembly imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of activities) against the government on November 12, 1974. Africans and government police clashed in Soweto and other townships near Johannesburg on June 16-23, 1976, resulting in the deaths of 176 individuals. The UN Security Council condemned the government on June 19, 1976. Some 500 more individuals were killed in political violence in Soweto during the following 20 months. The UN Security Council imposed military sanctions (mandatory arms embargo) against the government on November 4, 1977. Parliamentary elections were held on November 30, 1977, and the NP won 134 out of 166 seats in the House of Assembly. Organization of African Unity (OAU) foreign ministers expressed support for the ANC on July 18, 1978. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) heads of state expressed support for the ANC on September 8, 1979. The UN General Assembly imposed economic sanctions (oil embargo) against the government on December 12, 1979. The UN Security Council condemned the government’s apartheid policies on June 12, 1980. Three ANC members were sentenced to death on November 20, 1980 (the death sentences were commuted to life imprisonment on June 2, 1982). OAU foreign ministers condemned the government’s apartheid policies on June 26, 1981.  Government troops attacked ANC targets in Maseru, Lesotho on December 9, 1982, resulting in the deaths of 42 individuals. The UN General Assembly condemned the attack on December 14, 1982, and the UN Security Council condemned the attack on December 15, 1982. NAM heads of state condemned South Africa and expressed support for the ANC on March 12, 1983. ANC rebels attacked South African air force headquarters in Pretoria on May 20, 1983, resulting in the deaths of 19 individuals. Government military aircraft attacked ANC targets in Maputo, Mozambique on May 23, 1983, resulting in the deaths of 41 ANC members, 17 Mozambican soldiers, and six civilians. Mozambique’s foreign minister expressed support for the ANC on May 24, 1983. Thello Simon Mogoerane and two other members of the ANC were executed on June 9, 1983. OAU heads of state condemned the government for the execution of Thello Simon Mogoerane and other ANC member on June 12, 1983. Some 14 individuals were killed during rioting in Sharpsville on September 3, 1984. OAU heads of state condemned the government on November 15, 1984. Government police killed some 20 individuals near Uitenhage on March 21, 1985. The government declared a state-of-emergency on July 20, 1985. The European Community (EC) imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) and economic sanctions (partial trade embargo) against the government on July 26, 1985.  Commonwealth of Nation’s heads-of-state established a seven-member good offices commission (Australia, Barbados, Britain, Canada, India, Nigeria, Tanzania) headed by Malcolm Fraser of Australia and Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria on October 22, 1985. Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF) heads of state condemned the government’s apartheid policies on February 18, 1986. Government troops attacked ANC targets in Botswana, Zambia, and Zimbabwe on May 19, 1986, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. The Commonwealth of Nations good offices commission issued its final report on June 12, 1986. The government declared a national state-of-emergency on June 12, 1986.  OAU foreign ministers condemned the government on July 26, 1986. Three ANC members were executed on September 9, 1986.  The International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) sent a four-member fact-finding mission (Britain, Ireland, Switzerland, West Germany) to investigate human rights conditions in South Africa in February 1987. The ICJ fact-finding mission issued its report on March 16, 1987. Parliamentary elections were held on May 6, 1987, and the NP won 123 out of 166 seats in the House of Assembly. OAU foreign ministers condemned the government on May 23, 1988 and July 22, 1989. President P. W. Botha was replaced as president by F. W. De Klerk in August 1989.  President De Klerk legalized the ANC and other political parties on February 2, 1990, and ordered the release of Nelson Mandela from prison on February 11, 1990.  The government lifted the state-of-emergency, except in Natal province, on June 7, 1990.  The government lifted the state-of-emergency in Natal province on October 18, 1990.  Some 16,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(168-860) Post-Crisis Phase (October 19, 1990-present): Nelson Mandela and President De Klerk signed the signed the National Peace Accord in September 1991. The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) established a mission provide repatriation assistance to some 40,000 ANC exiles abroad between September 1991 and September 1993.  UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali appointed Cyrus Vance of the US as special representative to South Africa on July 17, 1992, and appointed Lakhdar Brahimi as special representative on December 15, 1992. UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali sent fact-finding missions to South Africa on September 16-27, 1992 and November 22-December 9, 1992. The UN and four regional organizations established observer and fact-finding missions in South Africa to monitor and investigate human rights conditions and violence.  The UN Security Council established the United Nations Observer Mission in South Africa (UNOMSA-peace promotion division) consisting of 50 civilian personnel on August 17, 1992.  The Commonwealth of Nations (CON) established the Commonwealth Observer Mission to South Africa (COMSA) consisting of 17 personnel on October 15, 1992. The OAU established a commission of inquiry that investigated human rights and violence from September 10 to October 3, 1992.  The EC established the European Community Observer Mission in South Africa (ECOMSA) consisting of 20 personnel on October 27, 1992.  The OAU established the OAU Observer Mission in South Africa (OAU-OMSA) consisting of 13 personnel on November 1, 1992. The UN General Assembly lifted economic sanctions (oil embargo) against South Africa on December 9, 1993. The South African government established the National Peacekeeping Force (NPKF), which consisted of 5,000 personnel, to provide security during the election process.  The Transitional Executive Authority (TEC) - which consisted of twenty representatives of the government, ANC, National Party, and other political parties and organizations - appealed to the Commonwealth of Nations secretariat for peacekeeping monitoring assistance on January 19, 1994.  The European Union (EU) established the European Union Election Unit in South Africa (EUNELSA) consisting of 322 observers to monitor the election process beginning on January 25, 1994.  The CON established the Commonwealth Peacekeeping Assistance Group (CPAG) consisting of 33 military and police officers from seven countries to provide peacekeeping assistance from February 15 to April 15, 1994.  The government imposed a state-of-emergency in Natal province from March 31 to September 7, 1994.  Parliamentary elections were held on April 26-29, 1994, and the ANC won 252 out of 400 seats in the National Assembly.  The NP won 82 seats in the National Assembly, and the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) won 43 seats in the National Assembly. The CON sent 104 observers to monitor the election process from April 9 to May 4, 1994. UNOMSA-electoral division sent 2,527 personnel to monitor the parliamentary elections. The OAU sent 102 observers to monitor the parliamentary elections. EUNELSA and COMSA were disbanded on May 10, 1994. Nelson Mandela was elected president by the National Assembly, and he was inaugurated as president on May 10, 1994.  The EC lifted military sanctions (arms embargo) and economic sanctions (partial trade embargo) against the government on May 25, 1994.  The UN Security Council lifted military sanctions against South Africa on May 25, 1994.  UNOMSA was disbanded on June 17, 1994.  The IFP boycotted the parliament between February 21 and March 5, 1995.  The IFP suspended its participation in the Constituent Assembly on April 8, 1995.  Some 112 individuals were killed in political violence in Kwazulu-Natal province in September 1995, and some 150 individuals were killed in political violence in Kwazulu-Natal province in December 1995.  The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) held its opening session in East London on April 15, 1996.  The Constituent Assembly approved a new constitution on May 8, 1996.  Some 1,200 individuals were killed in political violence in 1997.  The TRC issued a final report on October 29, 1998. Some 1,000 individuals were killed in political violence in 1998.  Eleven individuals were killed in political violence in Kwazulu-Natal province on January 23, 1999. Parliamentary elections were held on June 2, 1999, and the ANC won 266 out of 400 seats in the National Assembly.  The Democratic Party (DP) won 38 seats in the National Assembly, and the IFP won 34 seats in the National Assembly.  The CON sent 21 observers headed by Sir David Steel of Britain to monitor the parliamentary elections from May 24 to June 3, 1999.  The International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) sent twelve observers to monitor the parliamentary elections from May 26 to June 7, 1999.  The OAU sent 65 observers headed by Nicephore Sogo of Benin to monitor the parliamentary elections from May 31 to June 5, 1999.  Thabo Mbeki was elected president without opposition by the National Assembly on June 14, 1999, and he was inaugurated as president on June 16, 1999.  Some 650 individuals were killed in political violence in 1999.  Parliamentary elections were held on April 14, 2004, and the ANC won 279 out of 400 seats in the National Assembly.  The Democratic Alliance (DA) won 50 seats, and the IFP won 28 seats in the National Assembly.  The Electoral Institute of Southern Africa (EISA) sent 40 observers headed by Abel Leshele Thoahlane of Lesotho to monitor the parliamentary elections from April 7 to April 17, 2004.  President Mbeki was re-elected by the National Assembly on April 23, 2004.  More than 15,000 individuals have been killed in political violence since October 1990.

[Sources: Africa Contemporary Record (ACR), 1979-1980, 1981-1982, 1983-1984, 1984-1985, 1986-1987, 1988-1989, 1989-1990; Africa Diary, February 3-9, 1962, September 1-7, 1962, November 17-23, 1962, February 1-7, 1964, July 11-17, 1964, September 17-23, 1985; Africa Report, March-April 1986; Africa Research Bulletin (ARB), April 1-30, 1970, December 1-31, 1977, June 1-30, 1980, April 15, 1986, July 15, 1986, April 15, 1987; Anglin, 1995a, 21-52; Anglin, 1995b, 519-543; Associated Press (AP), June 7, 1999; Barber 1999; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), June 14, 1999, April 23, 2004; Brogan, 1992, 87-108; Clodfelter, 1992, 638, 1013, 1025-1026; Commonwealth of Nations press release, June 3, 1999; Davenport 1991; Degenhardt, 1988, 326-337; Donelan and Grieve, 1973, 188-193; Electoral Institute of Southern Africa (EISA) statement, April 16, 2004; Facts on File, December 5-11, 1963, May 16, 1986; Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), January 28, 1992; International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) press release, June 5, 1999; Jessup, 1998, 618-623; Keesing's Record of World Events, May 29-June 5, 1948, May 21-28, 1949, June 11-18, 1949, May 17-24, 1952, August 23-30, 1952, October 4-11, 1952, October 18-25, 1952, January 10-17, 1953, February 21-28, 1953, August 30-September 6, 1958, June 4-11, 1960, July 30-August 6, 1960, October 8-15, 1960, June 29-July 6, 1963, April 25-May 2, 1964, July 25-August 1, 1964, March 20-27, 1965, April 30-May 7, 1966, January 17-24, 1970, May 16-23, 1970, November 11-17, 1974, August 13, 1976, January 6, 1978, October 1994, February 1995, March 1995, April 1995, September 1995, December 1995, April 1996, May 1996, October 1998, January 1999, June 1999; Langer, 1972, 892, 1083-1085, 1276-1278; Lacour-Gayet 1977; Muller 1975; Reuters, May 31, 1999; UN Chronicle, December 1977, December 1992, March 1993, March 1994, June 1994, September 1994.]

(169-861) Pre-Crisis Phase (January 31, 1942-December 12, 1960): Ethiopia was liberated from Italian control by British troops, and Britain recognized the independence of Ethiopia on January 31, 1942. The US provided some $9 million in economic assistance to the government of Emperor Haile Selassie between April 2, 1948 and March 31, 1955. Government troops and peasants clashed near Gojam on August 2, 1950. The United Nations (UN) General Assembly approved the federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea on December 2, 1950. Government troops suppressed a rebellion, and eight individuals were sentenced to death for their involvement in the rebellion on July 26, 1951. Ethiopia requested military assistance from the US in October 1951. Elections to the Representative Assembly were held in Eritrea on March 25-26, 1952. The Representative Assembly adopted a constitution for Eritrea on July 10, 1952, and Emperor Haile Selassie ratified the constitution on August 11, 1952. Tedla Bairu was elected chief executive of Eritrea on August 28, 1952. Emperor Haile Selassie signed the Eritrean-Ethiopian Federation Act on September 11, 1952, and Eritrea joined the federation with Ethiopia on September 15, 1952. The US agreed to provide military assistance (military advisors) to the government of Emperor Haile Selassie on May 22, 1953. Emperor Haile Selassie issued a revised constitution on November 4, 1955, which prohibited political parties and established a Council of Ministers. The US provided some $12.5 million in economic assistance to the government between July 1, 1955 and June 30, 1957. Parliamentary elections were held between January 9 and March 9, 1957. The Chamber of Deputies convened in Addis Ababa on November 3, 1957.

(169-862) Crisis Phase (December 13, 1960-March 31, 1961): Government troops commanded by General Merid Mengesha suppressed a military rebellion led by Brigadier General Mengestu Newaye in Addis Ababa on December 13-16, 1960, resulting in the deaths of some 500 individuals. Parliamentary elections were held on January 9, 1961. On March 31, 1961, General Newaye was executed for his involvement in the December 1960 rebellion. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(169-863) Post-Crisis Phase (April 1, 1961-September 11, 1974): Emperor Haile Selassie appointed Aklilou Habte Wold as prime minister on April 17, 1961. The Chamber of Deputies voted to abolish the federation with Eritrea on November 14, 1962, and Ethiopia annexed Eritrea on November 16, 1962. Parliamentary elections were held on January 9, 1965. On August 2, 1968, two military officers were sentenced to death for subversion. Government police and student demonstrators clashed in Addis Ababa on April 3-24, 1969, resulting in the deaths of two students. Government police uncovered a plot against the government led by General Takele Woldehawariat on November 27, 1969. Government police and student demonstrators clashed in Addis Ababa on December 29, 1969, resulting in the deaths of three students. Parliamentary elections were held between June 23 and July 7, 1973. Government police and demonstrators clashed in Addis Ababa on February 20-25, 1974, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. Prime Minister Aklilu Habte Wolde resigned on February 27, 1974, and Emperor Haile Selassie appointed Lij Endalakatchew Makonnen as prime minister on February 28, 1974. Government police and students clashed in Addis Ababa on March 1-11, 1974, resulting in the death of one student. Prime Minister Lij Endalkatchew Makonnen resigned on July 22, 1974, and Emperor Haile Selassi appointed Lij Mikhail Imru as prime minister on July 23, 1974.

(169-864) Crisis Phase (September 12, 1974-July 12, 1977): Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed in a military coup on September 12, 1974, and the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC) headed by General Aman Michael Andom took control of the government on September 13, 1974. President Omar Bongo of Gabon condemned the military coup on September 15, 1974. Government troops arrested 21 individuals, including several former government officials, on October 10, 1974. General Aman was overthrown on November 22, 1974. General Aman, Prince Eskinder Desta, and 58 former government officials and military officers were executed in Alem Bekrange prison on November 23, 1974. The Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), which consisted of Oromo Muslims from eastern Ethiopia and mostly Oromo Christians from western Ethiopia, was established in opposition to the government in 1974.  Yugoslavia provided military assistance (supplies) to the government beginning on April 10, 1975. Twenty individuals were executed by the government on August 3, 1975 (some 200 individuals were executed by the government between September 1974 and August 1975). Former Emperor Haile Selassie died in prison on August 27, 1975. Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Addis Ababa on September 25, 1975, resulting in the deaths of seven individuals. The government declared a state-of-emergency in Addis Ababa on September 30, 1975. The government lifted the state-of-emergency in Addis Ababa on December 6, 1975.  Government troops suppressed a rebellion led by Lt.Colonel Negussie Haile and Captain Debessu Beyene on April 20-21, 1975, resulting in the arrests of 20 individuals. The Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party (EPRP) was established in opposition to the government in 1976.  Government troops fired on demonstrators in Addis Ababa on April 21, 1976, resulting in the death of one individual. Brigadier-General Teferi Bante and six members of the PMAC were killed during a power struggle on February 3, 1977, and Lt. Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam took full control of the PMAC on February 4, 1977. South Yemen expressed support for Lt. Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam on February 7, 1977, and Libya expressed support for Lt. Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam on February 8, 1977. The US imposed military sanctions (suspension of military assistance) against the Ethiopian government in February 1977. Government troops killed some 2,500 individuals throughout the country beginning in April 1977.  Some 3,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(169-865)  Conflict Phase (July 13, 1977-May 28, 1991):  The Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) launched a military offensive against the government n southern Ethiopia beginning on July 13, 1977.  The WSLF received military assistance from Somalia.  Somali government troops intervened in support of the rebels between February 13, 1978 and March 9, 1978.  On April 12, 1978, Amnesty International (AI) condemned the government’s "red terror" against the citizens of Ethiopia. Berhane Meskel Reda Wolde, a leader of the EPRP, was executed by the government on July 12, 1979. The Soviet Union provided military assistance (1,500 military advisors) in support of the government, and East Germany provided military assistance (250 military advisors) in support of the government beginning on November 28, 1977.  Cuba provided military assistance (17,000 military troops) in support of the government.  The government released 1,000 political prisoners in September 1981, and the government released 716 political prisoners on September 11, 1982. A new constitution was proposed on June 7, 1986, and the People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was established on December 12, 1986. EPRP rebels killed some 40 civilians in the Gojjam region on December 27, 1986. EPRP rebels killed 32 government soldiers on February 19, 1987. The constitution was approved in a referendum on February 1, 1987. A national legislature (Shengo) was elected on June 14, 1987, and the Shengo convened in Addis Ababa on September 9, 1987. Colonel Mengistu was elected president without opposition by the Shengo on September 10, 1987.  Tigre People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) rebels launched a military offensive against government troops in March 1988. Several opposition groups established the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) in May 1988. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion in May 1989, and some 30 military personnel were executed for their involvement in the military rebellion. Some one million individuals fled as refugees to neighboring countries.  Cuban troops completed their withdrawal from the country in September 1989.  The Oromo People’s Democratic Organization (OPDO) was established in opposition to the government in April 1990. EPRDF rebels launched a military offensive against government troops in the Gojam region on February 23, 1991, and EPRDF rebels captured Gondar on March 8-9, 1991. EPRDF rebels captured Mezezo in the Shoa region on March 19, 1991. President Mengistu appointed Tesfaye Dinka as prime minister on April 26, 1991. President Mengistu resigned as head-of-state on May 21, 1991, and Vice-President Tesfaye Gebre-Kidan assumed the presidency on May 22, 1991. EPRDF rebels captured Adis Alem on May 21, 1991 and Debre Birhan on May 23, 1991. Assistant Secretary of State Herman Cohen of the US mediated negotiations between representatives of the government and EPRDF in London on May 27-28, 1991. The government was overthrown by EPRDF rebels on May 28, 1991. Some 250,000 individuals were killed, and some one million individuals were displaced during the conflict.

(169-866) Post-Conflict Phase (May 29, 1991-present): EPRDF troops and demonstrators clashed in Addis Ababa on May 29, 1991, resulting in the deaths of seven individuals. The EPRDF convened a national conference with representatives from more than 20 political movements, including the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), on July 1-5, 1991. The conference established an 87-member Council of Representatives headed by Meles Zenawi of the EPRDF. The OLF was provided four cabinet positions in the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE). EPRDF troops and OLF troops clashed in 1991. The World Bank (WB) provided reconstruction assistance to the government between March 31, 1992 and September 30, 1997.  The provisional government of Eritrea and the US mediated a ceasefire on April 15, 1992. Regional assembly elections were held on June 21, 1992, but the OLF had withdrawn from the elections on June 17, 1992. The Joint International Observer Group (JIOG), which consisted of 74 observers from the US, 24 observers from the United Nations (UN), 18 observers from the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and 18 observers from Germany, was established to monitor the regional elections. The OLF withdrew from the TGE following the regional elections. The OLF mobilized some 15,000 troops. The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) established a mission to provide repatriation assistance to some one million Ethiopian refugees in Djibouti, Kenya, and Sudan beginning in 1993. The UNHCR assisted in the repatriation of some 30,000 Ethiopian refugees from Sudan, 32,000 from Djibouti, and 4,000 from Kenya between 1993 and December 1995. TGE troops and OLF troops engaged in military hostilities. Former President Jimmy Carter of the US, representing the Carter Center (CC), offered to mediate between the TGE and opposition political groups in March 1994, but the offer was rejected by the TGE. Elections were held on June 5, 1994, and the EPRDF won 484 out of 547 seats in the Constituent Assembly. Several opposition political parties boycotted the elections. The Constituent Assembly convened on October 28, 1994, and approved a draft constitution on December 8, 1994. Parliamentary elections were held on May 7, 1995. Several opposition political parties boycotted the elections. The OAU sent 81 observers to monitor the elections. On May 12, 1995, the OAU mission reported that the elections had been free and fair. The Council of People’s Representatives proclaimed the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia on August 22, 1995, and elected Meles Zanawi of the EPRDF as prime minister on August 23, 1995. Oromo rebels clashed with government troops in eastern Ethiopia on August 10-19, 1999, resulting in the deaths of some 300 rebels.  Some 2,000 individuals were killed in political violence in 1999.  One Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) personnel was killed in eastern Ethiopia on February 7, 2000 (MSF has maintained a mission consisting of ten international personnel and 110 local personnel in Ethiopia since 1985). Parliamentary elections were held on May 16, 2000, and the EPRDF won 479 out of 547 seats in the House of People's Representatives.  Opposition political parties boycotted the elections. Five individuals were killed in election-related violence. Local and regional elections were held on March 4, 2001. Seven opposition political parties boycotted the elections. Government police and students clashed in Addis Ababa on April 17-18, 2001, resulting in the deaths of some 40 individuals. Government police clashed with demonstrators in the town of Teppi on March 11, 2002, resulting in the deaths of some 125 individuals.  Government police clashed with demonstrators in Awassa on May 24, 2002, resulting in the deaths of some 15 individuals.  OLF rebels launched a military offensive against government troops in western Ethiopia beginning in May 2002.  Government troops suppressed the Oromo military offensive on July 4, 2002, resulting in the deaths of some 200 government soldiers and rebels.  Parliamentary elections were held on May 15, 2005, and the EPRDF won 327 out of 546 seats in the House of People's Representatives.  The Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD) won 109 seats, and the United Ethiopian Democratic Forces (UEDF) won 52 seats in the House of People's Representatives.  The European Union (EU) sent ten election experts, 50 long-term observers, and 100 short-term observers headed by Ana Gomes of Portugal to monitor the parliamentary elections from March 15 to September 15, 2005.  The African Union (AU) sent 30 observers headed by Amani Waldi Kabourou of Tanzania to monitor the parliamentary elections.  The Carter Center (CC) sent 50 observers to monitor the parliamentary elections from March 19 to May 16, 2005.  The CUD claimed election fraud on June 1, 2005.  Government police clashed with demonstrators in Addis Ababa on June 8, 2005.  On June 13, 2005, the US condemned the government for the use of "excessive force" against the demonstrators.  On June 15, 2005, Britain imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government.  Government police clashed with demonstrators in Addis Ababa on November 1-2, 2005.  Some 193 civilians and six government police were killed in political violence in 2005.  Some 3,500 individuals have been killed in political violence since May 1991.

[Sources: Africa Diary, May 27-June 2, 1976; Africa Research Bulletin (ARB), February 1-28, 1974, September 1-30, 1974, October 1-31, 1974, December 1-31, 1974, February 1-28, 1977, May 1-31, 1977; Associated Press (AP), February 8, 2000; Banks and Muller, 1998, 303-310; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), August 12, 1999, August 19, 1999, April 17, 2001, April 18, 2001, April 26, 2001, June 8, 2001, May 24, 2002, June 29, 2002, July 5, 2002, July 16, 2002, August 21, 2002, April 27, 2005, May 6, 2005, May 15, 2005, May 17, 2005, May 28, 2005, June 14, 2005, June 15, 2005, August 9, 2005, August 25, 2005, November 7, 2005, November 9, 2005, January 19, 2006; Brogan, 1992, 27-39; Carter Center (CC) press release, May 16, 2005; Carter Center (CC) statement, May 16, 2005; Degenhardt, 1988, 99-106; Facts on File, December 15-21, 1960, July 27, 1974, September 14, 1974, November 30, 1974, May 3, 1975, August 16, 1975, October 11, 1975, December 13, 1975, February 12, 1977, April 2, 1977, June 4, 1977, May 19, 1978, May 3, 2001; Gilkes 1975; Harbeson, 1998, 111-131; Human Rights Watch (HRW) press release, May 10, 2001; Jessup, 1998, 188-190; Keesing's Record of World Events, November 16-23, 1957, September 11-18, 1971, July 30-August 5, 1973, March 25-31, 1974, July 29-August 4, 1974, September 30-October 6, 1974, March 24-30, 1975, March 1991, May 1991, June 1991, June 1994, July 1994, August 1995; Langer, 1972, 1281; Lyons, 1996, 121-142; Marcus 1983; Medicins Sans Frontieres (MSF) press release, February 8, 2000; New York Times (NYT), June 8, 2005; Panafrican News Agency (PANA), May 11, 2000, May 14, 2000, May 15, 2000, June 16, 2000; Reuters, May 15, 2000, March 4, 2001, April 21, 2001, April 27, 2001, June 13, 2005; Schwab 1972; United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) press release, April 11, 1996; Washington Post (WP), May 15, 2005.]

(170-867) Pre-Crisis Phase (May 4, 1943-February 8, 1966): William Tubman of the True Whig Party (TWP) was elected president on May 4, 1943. President Tubman was re-elected without opposition in May 1951. The government entered a mutual defense agreement with the US on November 19, 1951. President Tubman was re-elected in May 1955. President Tubman survived an attempted assassination in June 1955. Thirty individuals were arrested for their involvement in the attempted assassination. The government suppressed a rebellion on February 5, 1963.

(170-868) Crisis Phase (February 9, 1966-February 8, 1967): President Tubman was granted emergency powers by the parliament for 12 months on February 9, 1966.

(170-869) Post-Crisis Phase (February 9, 1967-April 13, 1979): President Tubman was re-elected in 1967. President Tubman was re-elected in May 1971. President Tubman died in July 1971, and Vice-President William Tolbert became provisional president on July 23, 1971. William Tolbert was inaugurated as president on January 3, 1972. Parliamentary elections were held on October 7, 1975, and the TWP won all of the seats in the House of Representatives. President Tolbert was re-elected without opposition on October 7, 1975.

(170-870) Crisis Phase (April 14, 1979-December 23, 1989): The Progressive Alliance of Liberia (PAL) headed by Gabriel Baccus organized a demonstration against the government in Monrovia on April 14, 1979. President Sekou Toure of Guinea offered to assist the government, and President Tolbert accepted the offer. Government troops and 100 Guinean troops suppressed the demonstration on April 14-15, 1979, resulting in the deaths of some 200 individuals (Liberia and Guinea had signed a non-aggression and mutual defense treaty on January 23, 1979). Guinean troops withdrew from the country on May 15, 1979. President Tolbert was killed during a military coup led by Sergeant Samuel Doe, a member of the Krahn ethnic group, on April 12, 1980. Some 30 individuals were killed during the military coup. The People’s Redemption Council (PRC) headed by Sergeant Doe took control of the government on April 12, 1980. Libya provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the PRC on April 13, 1980. The PRC executed four individuals on April 17, 1980, and executed 13 individuals on April 22, 1980. The PRC declared martial law, and suspended the constitution on April 25, 1980. The US mobilized naval ships and troops in the area in support of President Samuel Doe between April 1, 1981 and May 10, 1981.  Government troops suppressed a military rebellion on May 29-30, 1981, and thirteen military personnel were executed for their involvement in the military rebellion. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Major General Thomas Weh Syen on August 8-10, 1981. On August 14, 1981, Major General Weh Syen and four other members of the PRC were executed for their involvement in the military rebellion.  A draft constitution was approved in a referendum on July 3, 1983. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion on November 21, 1983, and 13 individuals were sentenced to death for their involvement in the military rebellion on April 5, 1984.  President Doe repealed the death sentences for 10 of the 13 individuals on April 7, 1984.  A new constitution was approved in a national referendum on July 3, 1984.  The PRC was dissolved on July 21, 1984, and the ban on political party activity was lifted on July 26, 1984.  The government suppressed a rebellion on August 19, 1984.  Government troops suppressed demonstrations in Monrovia on August 22, 1984, resulting in the deaths of 16 individuals.  President Doe survived an attempted assassination on April 1, 1985, and Lt. Colonel Moses Flanzamaton was executed for his involvement in the attempted assassination on April 7, 1985.  Parliamentary elections were held on October 15, 1985, and the National Democratic Party of Liberia (NDPL) won 51 out of 64 seats in the House of Representatives.  Samuel Doe was elected president on October 15, 1985, and he was inaugurated as president on January 6, 1986.  Opposition political parties claimed election fraud.  Brig.-General Thomas Quiwonkpa led an unsuccessful military rebellion against the government on November 12-15, 1985, resulting in the deaths of some 600 individuals.  Some 5,000 individuals were killed in political violence in 1985.  The Liberian Action Party (LAP), Liberian Unification Party (LUP), and Unity Party (UP) formed a political coalition against the government on March 16, 1986.  The government suppressed a military rebellion led by General Nicholas Podier on July 13, 1988, resulting in the deaths of ten individuals.  Some 10,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(170-871) Conflict Phase (December 24, 1989-August 17, 1996): The National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) led by Charles Taylor rebelled against the government beginning on December 24, 1989.  The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) established the Standing Mediation Committee (SMC) consisting of representatives from Gambia, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria, and Togo on April 15, 1990.  On August 24, 1990, ECOWAS deployed the ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG-Liberia) to monitor the cessation of military hostilities; to provide security for the government; to restore law and order; and to assist with the demobilization/disarmament process.  ECOMOG consisted of some 13,500 troops from 13 countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, and Uganda) commanded by Major-General Joshua Nimyel Dogonyaro of Nigeria.  President Doe was captured and killed by a dissident faction of the NPFL headed by Prince Yormie Johnson on September 9-10, 1990.  Assistant Secretary of State Herman Cohen of the US mediated a temporary ceasefire agreement between the parties on September 18-22, 1990.  On November 28, 1990, the political factions signed an ECOWAS-mediated ceasefire agreement in Bamako, Mali, and the political factions signed another ECOWAS-mediated ceasefire agreement in Banjul, Gambia on December 21, 1990.  Medicins Sans Frontieres (MSF) established a mission to provide humanitarian assistance to civilians beginning in 1990.  ECOWAS-SMC mediated a ceasefire agreement on October 30, 1991, but military hostilities resumed on November 5, 1991.  NPFL rebels launched a military offensive against government troops and ECOMOG peacekeeping troops in Monrovia on October 15, 1992.  The United Nations (UN) Security Council imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the parties on November 19, 1992.  The UN secretary-general appointed Trevor Livingston of Jamaica as special representative for Liberia in November 1992. The International Rescue Committee (IRC) established a mission to provide humanitarian assistance to Liberian refugees in the Ivory Coast and Guinean in 1992.  Some 600 individuals were killed in an attack near Harbel on June 6, 1993.  The UN Security Council condemned the attack on June 7, 1993.  The UN secretary-general appointed a three-member commission of inquiry (Egypt, Kenya, and US) to investigate the massacre at Harbel.  The UN commission of inquiry issued a report on September 10, 1993, which placed the responsibility for the Harbel massacre on the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL).  The parties signed a ceasefire agreement mediated by the UN, Organization of African Unity (OAU), and ECOWAS in Cotonou, Benin on July 25, 1993.  The ceasefire went into effect on August 1, 1993.  On September 22, 1993, the UN Security Council established the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL) to monitor the ceasefire; to assist with provision of humanitarian assistance; and to monitor the disengagement/disarmament of the NPFL.  UNOMIL-military component consisted of 303 military observers from 22 countries commanded by Major-General Daiel Ishmael Opande of Kenya.  On August 7, 1993, the UN secretary-general appointed a three-member commission of inquiry (Egypt, Kenya, US) to investigate human rights abuses.  The UN commission of inquiry issued a report on September 10, 1993.  The rival factions resumed military hostilities in May 1994.  The UN Security Council appealed for a ceasefire on May 23, 1994.  The UN special envoy mediated the Akosombo Accords, which was signed by the parties in September 1994.  President Jerry Rawlings of Ghana, chair of ECOWAS, mediated a ceasefire agreement in Accra on December 21, 1994.  Anthony Nyakyi of Tanzania served as special representative of the UN secretary-general from December 1994 to April 1997.  ECOWAS-SMC and Nigeria mediated the signing of the Abuja Agreement by six Liberian factions on August 19, 1995, and the Liberia National Transition Government was established in Monrovia on September 2, 1995.  Several thousand individuals were killed during clashes between April 6 and August 17, 1996.  The UN Security Council appealed for a ceasefire on May 6, 1996.  The factions signed the ECOWAS-mediated Supplement to the Abuja Accord on August 17, 1996, resulting in an immediate cessation of military hostilities.  Some 175,000 individuals were killed, and some 750,000 individuals were displaced during the conflict.  Some 700 ECOWAS personnel were killed during the conflict.

(170-872) Post-Conflict Phase (August 18, 1996-July 7, 2000): Ruth Sando Perry assumed leadership of the Council of State on the Liberian National Transitional Government (LNTG).  Tuliameni Kalomoh of Namibia served as special representative of the UN secretary-general from April to September 1997.  Parliamentary elections were held on July 19, 1997, and the National Patriotic Party (NPP) won 49 out of 64 seats in the House of Representatives.  The Unity Party (UP) won seven seats in the House of Representatives, and the All-Liberia Coalition Party (ALCOP) won three seats in the House of Representatives. Charles Taylor was elected president with 75 percent of the vote on July 19, 1997.  UNOMIL-electoral unit deployed some 300 observers to monitor the elections beginning on April 15, 1997.  The European Union (EU), OAU, and ECOWAS sent 30 observers to monitor the elections.  The Carter Center (CC) sent 40 observers headed by Jimmy Carter of the US and Nicephore Soglo of Benin to monitor the elections from June 26 to July 21, 1997.  ECOWAS lifted sanctions against the government on September 1, 1997.  UNOMIL was disbanded on September 30, 1997.  UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan established the United Nations Peace-Building Support Office in Liberia (UNPSOL) on November 1, 1997.  UNPSOL consisted of seven personnel headed by Felix Cyril Downes-Thomas of Gambia. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) established a mission to provide repatriation assistance to Liberian refugees in December 1997.  ECOMOG-Liberia was disbanded on February 2, 1998, but some 5,000 ECOWAS military personnel remained in the country to train the government's security forces and to maintain order beginning on February 3, 1998.  The UNHCR assisted with the repatriation of 80,000 refugees in 1998. Some 50,000 individuals were displaced from their homes in 1999.  ECOWAS withdrew its remaining military personnel from the country on October 23, 1999.  The Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) was established by Liberian refugees in opposition to the government in 2000.

(170-873) Conflict Phase (July 8, 2000-June 17, 2003):  Government troops and LURD rebels clashed near the town of Voinjama on July 8-31, 2000, resulting in the deaths of 47 rebels and 12 government soldiers.  President Charles Taylor declared a state-of-emergency in northern Liberia on July 19, 2000.  The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) provided humanitarian assistance to displaced individuals beginning on September 21, 2000.  LURD rebels attacked the village of Zorzor in October 2000.  Some 50,000 individuals were displaced from their homes in northern Liberia in 2000.  Government troops killed some 200 civilians between April and July 2001.  EU foreign ministers imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the government and rebels on May 7, 2001.  Government troops clashed with LURD rebels in Zorzor district in northern Liberia on May 31-June 1, 2001.  Government troops and LURD rebels clashed in northern Liberia on December 1-2, 2001, resulting in the deaths of five government soldiers and 35 rebels.  Government troops and LURD rebels clashed near Foya on December 6, 2001, resulting in the deaths of 28 rebels. LURD rebels attacked the town of Kley on February 7, 2002.  President Taylor declared a state-of-emergency on February 8, 2002.  LURD rebels attacked the Todee military base on April 2, 2002.  LURD rebels attacked the town of Kakata on April 3, 2002, resulting in the deaths of three individuals.  LURD rebels attacked the town of Tubmanburg on April 4, 2002.  Tiawon Gongloe, a human rights lawyer, was arrested by government police on April 24, 2002. On May 1, 2002, the EU condemned the government for the torture of Tiawon Gongloe while in police custody.  Government troops and LURD rebels clashed near the town of Gbarnga on May 9-16, 2002, resulting in the deaths of 100 rebels.  United Nations (UN) Secretary-General Kofi Annan condemned LURD rebels on May 15, 2002.  ECOWAS appealed for a ceasefire between government troops and LURD rebels on May 20, 2002.  Government troops recaptured the town from LURD rebels on Tubmanburg on July 19, 2002, resulting in the deaths of some 100 rebels. Government troops recaptured the town of Voinjama from LURD rebels on August 13, 2002. Government troops recaptured the town of Bopolu from LURD rebels on September 11, 2002. The government lifted the state-of-emergency on September 14, 2002. Government troops and rebels clashed near the town of Zorzor on December 7, 2002. ECOWAS appointed Abdulsalami Abubakar of Nigeria as mediator on May 6, 2003.  Representatives of the government, LURD, and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) signed an ECOWAS-mediated ceasefire agreement in Accra, Ghana on June 17, 2003.  Some 1,000 individuals have been killed, and some 500,000 individuals have been displaced during the conflict.

(170-874) Post-Conflict Phase (June 18, 2003-January 16, 2006):  On July 8, 2003, UN Secretary-General appointed Jacques Paul Klein of the US as UN Special Representative for Liberia.  On July 25, 2003, President George W. Bush of the US ordered the deployment of US military personnel off the coast of Liberia in support of the deployment of ECOWAS peacekeeping troops in Liberia.  Some 4,350 US military personnel aboard US naval ships were deployed off the coast of Liberia beginning on July 29, 2003 (320 US military personnel were deployed on the ground in Liberia).  ECOWAS appointed Francis Blain as special envoy to Liberia on August 4, 2003.  On August 4, 2003, ECOWAS deployed the ECOWAS Mission in Liberia (ECOMIL) to maintain law and order; to monitor the ceasefire agreement; and to protect the delivery of humanitarian assistance.  ECOMIL consisted of 3,550 peacekeeping troops from eight countries (Nigeria, Guinea-Bissau, Gambia, Ghana, Mali, Senegal, Benin, and Togo) commanded by General Festus Okonkwo of Nigeria.  President Taylor resigned on August 11, 2003, and Vice President Moses Blah took office as president.  Representatives of the government, LURD, and MODEL signed an ECOWAS-mediated peace agreement in Accra, Ghana on August 18, 2003.  Some 2,000 individuals were killed in violence in Monrovia since the June 2003 ceasefire agreement.  On September 19, 2003, the UN Security Council established the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) to monitor the ceasefire; to monitor the disengagement of military forces; and to facilitate the provision of humanitarian assistance.  UNMIL, which consisted of some 14,000 peacekeeping troops, 200 military observers, and 1,200 civilian police from 63 countries, was deployed in Liberia on October 1, 2003.  ECOMIL was disbanded, and US military personnel withdrew from Liberia on September 30, 2003.  Some 13 individuals were killed in political violence in Monrovia on October 2, 2003.  Charles Gyude Bryant was sworn in as interim president and head of a power-sharing government on October 14, 2003.  Some 14 individuals were killed in political violence in Monrovia on October 28-31, 2004.  On October 31, 2004, Alpha Oumar Konare, Chairperson of the African Union (AU) Commission, condemned the violence in Monrovia.  UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Alan Doss of Britain as UN Special Representative for Liberia beginning on August 15, 2005.  Parliamentary elections were held on October 11, 2005, and the Congress for Democratic Change (CDC) won 15 out of 64 seats in the House of Representatives.  The Liberty Party (LP) won nine seats, the Coalition for the Transformation of Liberia (CTL) won eight seats, and the Unity Party (UP) won eight seats in the House of Representatives.  The EU sent 10 election experts, 20 long-term observers, and 40 short-term observers headed by Max van den Berg of the Netherlands to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections from September 9 to November 27, 2005.  ECOWAS sent 47 observers headed by E. M. Debrah from Ghana to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections from October 7 to November 12, 2005.  The National Democratic Institute (NDI) and Carter Center (CC) sent 40 observers to jointly monitor the first round of the presidential election and parliamentary elections from October 5 to October 13, 2005.  The International Republican Institute (IRI) sent observers to monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections.  Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf of the UP was elected president with 59 percent of the vote in the second round of the presidential election held on November 8, 2005, and she was inaugurated as president on January 16, 2006.  The AU sent observers headed by Elie-Victor Essomba Tsoungui of Cameroon to monitor the second round of the presidential election from November 4 to November 9, 2005.  The NDI and CC sent 28 observers to monitor the second round of the presidential election from November 4 to November 10, 2005. 

(170-875) Post-Crisis Phase (January 17, 2006-present):  President Johnson-Sirleaf established the Liberian Truth and Reconciliation Commission on February 21, 2006.

[Sources: Adeleke, 1995, 569-593; Africa Research Bulletin (ARB), April 1-30, 1979, May 1-31, 1979, April 1-30, 1980, August 1-31, 1981, December 15, 1980, February 15, 1986, August 15, 1988; African Union (AU) press release, October 31, 2004; African Union (AU) statement, November 9, 2005; Agence France-Presse (AFP), December 12, 2001, March 20, 2002, June 13, 2002; Associated Press (AP), January 25, 1998, January 30, 1998, June 1, 2001, September 14, 2002, December 9, 2002, February 1, 2003, February 14, 2003, June 20, 2003, July 8, 2003, August 18, 2003; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 244-245; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), January 29, 2002, February 4, 2002, March 5, 2002, March 19, 2002, March 21, 2002, March 28, 2002, April 4, 2002, April 22, 2002, July 21, 2002, July 22, 2003, August 19, 2003, August 25, 2003, September 19, 2003, October 14, 2003, October 31, 2004, November 1, 2004, October 11, 2005, October 17, 2005, November 9, 2005, November 10, 2005, November 11, 2005, January 16, 2006, October 10, 2006; Clodfelter, 1992, 1030-1031; Daily Trust (Abuja), May 20, 2002; Degenhardt, 1988, 223-224; Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) press release, June 27, 2003, August 4, 2003; European Union (EU) statement, October 13, 2003; Facts on File, June 2-8, 1966, December 31, 2001; Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), January 31, 1994; Human Rights Watch (HRW) press release, April 26, 2002; International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) press release, September 28, 2000; Jessup, 1998, 424-426; Keesing's Record of World Events, January 15-22, 1972, November 10-16, 1975, July 20, 1979, August 15, 1980, January 15, 1982, February 1986, September 1990, July 1993, August 1995, July 1997; Langer, 1972, 1265-1266; New York Times (NYT), July 21, 2002, June 18, 2003, July 20, 2003, August 8, 2003, August 12, 2003, August 21, 2003, October 3, 2003, October 15, 2003; Olonisakin, 1996, 33-51; Panafrican News Agency (PANA), July 20, 1997, August 2, 2000; Reuters, July 24, 1999, October 22, 1999, August 1, 2000, December 3, 2001, December 6, 2001, December 28, 2001, August 15, 2002, February 4, 2003, March 4, 2003, March 30, 2003, April 19, 2003, May 6, 2003, June 4, 2003, June 12, 2003, June 13, 2003, June 14, 2003, June 16, 2003, June 17, 2003, June 18, 2003, June 26, 2003, June 30, 2003, July 27, 2003, July 28, 2003, July 29, 2003, August 4, 2003, August 11, 2003, August 18, 2003; The News (Monrovia), May 1, 2002, May 16, 2002, May 20, 2002, August 15, 2002, February 5, 2003; Tillema, 1991, 67; United Nations Security Council (UNSC) press release, May 6, 1996; US Committee on Refugees (USCR) report, January 2001; US Department of State press release, October 1, 2003; Weisburd, 1997, 204-206.]

(171-876) Crisis Phase (January 1, 1945-September 25, 1952): Members of the Kikuyu tribe established the Mau Mau ("Hidden Ones") Society in opposition to the British government in 1945.

(171-877) Conflict Phase (September 26, 1952-January 12, 1960): Members of the Mau Mau Society began a rebellion against the British government on September 26, 1952. Mau Mau rebels killed a British civilian near Nairobi on October 3, 1952. Chief Waruhiu of the Kikuyu tribe was killed by Mau Mau rebels near Nairobi on October 7, 1952. Britain declared a state-of-emergency in Kenya on October 21, 1952. Jomo Kenyatta, a member of the Kikuyu tribe, was arrested on October 20, 1952. Chief Nderi of the Kikuyu tribe and two policemen were killed by Mau Mau rebels on October 22, 1952. Mau Mau rebels killed three individuals near North Kinangop on October 27-28, 1952. Mau Mau rebels killed some 150 individuals (members of the Kikuyu tribe) in the village of Lari on March 26, 1953. Mau Mau rebels killed 12 government police near Nyeri on March 27, 1953. Jomo Kenyatta was sentenced to seven years in prison for his involvement in the Mau Mau rebellion on April 8, 1953. Mau Mau rebels attacked a government police camp near Othaya on May 8, 1953, resulting in the deaths of 16 rebels. Mau Mau rebels attacked a Kikuyu tribal police station in Kairuitha on May 8, 1953, resulting in the deaths of 15 Kikuyu policemen. Mau Mau rebels attacked a Kikuyu tribal police station in Iriani on May 9-10, 1953, resulting in the deaths of 32 rebels and five Kikuyu policemen. Some 78,000 members of the Mau Mau Society were interned in British detention camps during the conflict. Six Mau Mau rebels were executed on June 29, 1956, and one Mau Mau rebel was executed on July 6, 1956. Elections to the Legislative Council were held between September 25 and October 2, 1956. Dedan Kimathi, leader of the Mau Mau rebels, was captured in the Nyeri district on October 21, 1956. Dedan Kimathi was executed on February 18, 1957. The British government lifted the state-of-emergency on January 12, 1960. Some 13,400 individuals, including 11,000 rebels, 1,800 civilians, and 600 government soldiers, were killed during the conflict.

(171-878) Post-Conflict Phase (January 13, 1960-December 12, 1963): The Kenyan African National Union (KANU) was officially recognized as a political party on June 11, 1960.  The Kenya Africa Democratic Union (KADU) was established on June 25, 1960. Parliamentary elections were held on February 27, 1961, and KANU won 19 out of 53 seats in the Legislative Council. KADU won 12 seats in the Legislative Council. Jomo Kenyatta was released from prison on August 14, 1961. Parliamentary election were held on May 18-26, 1963, and KANU won 67 out of 112 contested seats in the House of Representatives. Jomo Kenyatta of the KANU formed a government as prime minister on June 1, 1963. Kenya formally achieved its independence from Britain on December 12, 1963.

[Sources: Africa Report, March 1961, October 1961; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 74-75; Clodfelter, 1992, 1012-1013; Facts on File, October 17-23, 1952, March 27-April 2, 1953, May 8-14, 1953; Jessup, 1998, 387-389, 465; Keesing's Record of World Events, September 27-October 4, 1952, November 15-22, 1952, June 29-July 6, 1957, January 9-16, 1960, July 23-30, 1960, June 22-29, 1963, November 16-23, 1963, December 7-14, 1963; Langer, 1972, 1082-1083, 1279-1280; Bennett and Smith 1976; Throup, 1985, 399-433; Tillema, 1991, 100-101.]

(172-879) Pre-Crisis Phase (January 1, 1945-February 26, 1948): African nationalists in the British colony of the Gold Coast and in the United Nations (UN) Trust Territory of British Togoland began independence movements in 1945. A new constitution for the British Gold Coast went into effect on March 29, 1946. Elections to the Legislative Council were held in June 1946, and the Legislative Council convened with 21 Africans and 10 Europeans on July 23, 1946. The Gold Coast Convention People’s Party (CPP) was established to promote self-government for the British Gold Coast in August 1947. Sir Gerlad Creasy was appointed Governor of British Gold Coast in January 1948.

(172-880) Crisis Phase (February 27, 1948-March 6, 1957): British government police and African nationalist clashed in Accra and other cities on February 27-29, 1948, resulting in the deaths of 29 individuals. The CPP declared a nationwide strike and boycott of British goods beginning on January 8, 1950. The British government declared a state-of-emergency on January 12, 1950. Two government policemen were killed by demonstrators in Accra on January 17, 1950, and the strike ended on January 20, 1950. Kwame Nkrumah, general-secretary of the CPP, and other CPP leaders were arrested on January 21, 1950. Kwame Nkrumah was sentenced to three years in prison on February 22, 1950. Municipal elections were held on February 4-10, 1951, and the CPP won 34 out of 38 seats in the Legislative Council. The United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) won three seats in the Legislative Council. The UN General Assembly approved a resolution calling for a UN-supervised plebiscite in British Togoland to determine whether the inhabitant favored independence or union with an independent Gold Coast (Ghana). A new constitution went into effect in April 1954. Parliamentary elections were held on June 15, 1954, and CPP won 71 out of 104 seats in the Legislative Assembly. The UN supervised a plebiscite in British Togoland on May 9, 1956, and 58 percent of the voters supported integration with the Gold Coast. On September 5, 1956, the UN Plebiscite Commissioner reported to the UN General Assembly that the plebiscite had been free and fair, and the UN General Assembly then approved the union. The British parliament approved the Ghana Independence Act in January 1957. Ghana formally achieved its independence from Britain on March 6, 1957. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

[Sources: Beigbeder, 1994, 130-133; Bourret 1960; Keesing's Record of World Events, June 24-30, 1950, February 9-16, 1957, March 9-16, 1957; Langer, 1972, 1081, 1266; Lapping, 1985, 353-396.]

(173-881) Crisis Phase (February 22, 1946-March 28, 1947): Malagasy nationalists established the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renewal (Movement Democratique de la Renovation Malgache - MDRM) to promote independence within the French Union on February 22, 1946. The MDRM proposed a bill in the French parliament on March 21, 1946, which declared the independence of Malagasy from France. On October 25, 1946, the French parliament declared that Malagasy was a territory of the French Republic.

(173-882) Conflict Phase (March 29, 1947-December 1, 1948): Members of the MDRM rebelled against the French government beginning on March 29, 1947. MDRM rebels attacked a French military garrison in Moramanga on March 29, 1947, resulting in the deaths of 20 French and Senegalese soldiers. The French government declared the MDRM as an illegal organization on April 19, 1947. Pierre de Chevigne was appointed as governor-general in February 1948. French government troops suppressed the rebellion on December 1, 1948. Some 89,000 Malagasys, including 11,500 rebels, died during the conflict. Some 350 French government soldiers and 140 French civilians were killed during the conflict.

(173-883) Post-Conflict Phase (December 2, 1948-June 26, 1960): Robert Bargues was appointed as governor-general in February 1950. Malagasy voted for independence from France in a referendum on September 28, 1958. The territorial assembly proclaimed the Malagasy Republic as a semi-autonomous republic within the French Union on October 14, 1958. Malagasy adopted a constitution on April 29, 1959. French and Malagasy representatives began negotiations in Paris on February 11, 1960. The parties signed an agreement in Paris on April 2, 1960, which provided for the independence of the Malagasy from France. The Malagasy Republic formally attained its independence from France on June 26, 1960.

[Sources: Allen, 1995; Bercovitch and Jackson, 1997, 54-55; Brown 1979; Butterworth, 1976, 86-88; Clodfelter, 1992, 1012; Facts on File, March 30-April 5, 1947, August 2-9, 1947; Heseltine 1971; Keesing's Record of World Events, April 9-16, 1960; Thompson and Adloff, 1965, 26-112.]

(174-884) Crisis Phase (January 1, 1947-April 27, 1960): African nationalists in French Togoland began an independence movement in 1947. France had administered part of the former German protectorates in West Central Africa under League of Nations (LON) mandate since May 6, 1919, and administered French Togoland (territory of the Ewe tribe) under United Nations (UN) trusteeship following World War II. On October 28, 1956, the French government held a referendum to determine whether the inhabitants preferred autonomy under French sovereignty or continued UN trusteeship, and some 72 percent of the electorate voted for autonomy. Several political groups boycotted the referendum. The UN General Assembly refused to accept the results of the referendum (since it did not include the option of independence), and decided to continue the UN trusteeship. French Togoland requested that the UN supervise a referendum in the trust territory. On November 29, 1957, the UN General Assembly agreed to supervise a referendum in French Togoland. A majority of the electorate voted for independence from France in a referendum held on April 27, 1958. Elections for the French Togoland Legislative Assembly were held on April 27, 1958, and the National Union Party (NUP) headed by Sylvanus Olympio won 29 out of 46 seats. The UN established a mission consisting of 32 personnel headed by Max Dorsinville of Haiti to supervise the referendum and legislative elections. In November 1958, the UN General Assembly agreed to terminate the UN trusteeship in French Togoland. Togo formally achieved its independence from France on April 27, 1960.

[Sources: Beigbeder, 1994, 130-133; Butterworth, 1976, 89-91; Facts on File, April 24-30, 1958; Keesing's Record of World Events, April 27-May 4, 1957, March 1-8, 1958, April 30-May 7, 1960; Langer, 1972, 1081, 1266-1267; Mortimer, 1969, 297-302.]

(175-885) Crisis Phase (April 10, 1948-December 17, 1956): Cameroon nationalists headed by Ruben Um Nyobe, Felix Moumie, Ernest Ouandie, and Abel Kingue established the Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC) in Douala on April 10, 1948. The UPC advocated the unification of British Cameroon and French Cameroon, and advocated the independence of Cameroon under the terms of the United Nations (UN) Charter. The UN Assembly approved a trusteeship agreement for French and British administration of the Cameroons in 1949. Parliamentary elections were held in March 1952, and the Bloc Democratique Camerounais (BDC) won most of the seats. One individual was killed in political violence in May 1952. Government police and demonstrators clashed in Douala, Yaounde, Bafoussam, Meiganga, and other cities on May 22-30, 1955, resulting in the deaths of 26 individuals. The French government banned the UPC on July 13, 1955. On August 2, 1956, the French government agreed to allow the UPC to participate in parliamentary elections scheduled for December 23, 1956. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(175-886) Conflict Phase (December 18, 1956-December 31, 1959): Members of the UPC rebelled against the French government beginning on December 18, 1956. The French government deployed additional troops to the French Cameroons on January 5, 1958. Some 2,000 individuals were killed in political violence in the Sanaga maritime region between December 1956 and January 1957. The French Cameroon Assembly convened on January 28, 1957, and the Assembly approved the Statute of the Cameroon on February 22, 1957. Andre Mbida formed a government as prime minister in the French Cameroon on May 15, 1957. Seven individuals were killed in political violence near Bafoussam on December 15, 1957. The French National Assembly approved an amnesty for UPC rebels on February 7, 1958. Prime Minister Mbida resigned on February 17, 1958, and Ahmadou Ahidjo of the Cameroon Union Party (Union Camerounaise - UC) formed a government as prime minister on February 19, 1958. Ruben Um Nyobe was killed by government police near Boumnyebel on September 13, 1958, and some 2,000 UPC rebels surrendered to French troops between September 14 and December 31, 1958. Some 75 civilians and 370 UPC rebels were killed in political violence between September 5, 1957 and October 31, 1958. The UN General Assembly sent a four-member fact-finding mission (Haiti, India, New Zealand, US) headed by Benjamin Gerig of the US to the Cameroons between October 29 and December 6, 1958. The UN fact-finding mission issued a report to the UN General Assembly on February 20, 1959. The UN General Assembly approved a resolution on March 13, 1959, which called for the independence of French Cameroon. Felix Moumie, leader of the Marxist wing of the UPC, rebelled against the French government beginning on June 27, 1959. Government police and UPC rebels clashed on September 14, 1959, resulting in the deaths of nine individuals. French government troops suppressed the UPC rebellion on December 31, 1959. Some 30,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(175-887) Post-Conflict Phase (January 1, 1960-October 1, 1961): French Cameroon formally achieved its independence from France on January 1, 1960. A constitution was approved in a referendum on February 21, 1960. Ghana, Guinea, and Liberia recognized the independence of Cameroon on February 25, 1960. Prime Minister Ahidjo lifted the ban on the UPC on February 25, 1960. Parliamentary elections were held on April 10, 1960, and the UC headed by Ahmadou Ahidjo won 60 out of 106 seats in the National Assembly. The UPC won 22 seats in the National Assembly. Ahmadou Ahidjo was elected president by the National Assembly on May 5, 1960. The UN held a plebiscite in British Cameroon on February 11-12, 1961. French Cameroon and the southern part of British Cameroon were united as the Federal Republic of Cameroon on October 1, 1961.

[Sources: Butterworth, 1976, 193-194; Chiabi 1997; Clodfelter, 1992, 1013; Facts on File, January 9-15, 1958, October 16-22, 1958, September 24-30, 1959; Jessup, 1998, 105-106; Joseph, 1974, 428-448; Keesing's Record of World Events, May 23-30, 1959, January 23-30, 1960, March 12-19, 1960, May 7-14, 1960; Langer, 1972, 1268; LeVine 1964; Mortimer, 1969, 297-302; Tillema, 1991, 70-72.]

(176-888) Crisis Phase (January 1, 1950-August 7, 1960): The Democratic Party of the Ivory Coast (PDCI) began an independence movement against the French colonial government in January 1950. French government troops killed 13 individuals in Dimbokro on January 30, 1950. French government troops were deployed in Abidjan on January 31, 1950. France granted the colony of Ivory Coast autonomous status within the French community on December 4, 1958. Felix Houphouet-Boigny, leader of the PDCI, became prime minister in 1959. Ivory Coast formally achieved its independence from France on August 7, 1960. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

[Sources: Jessup, 1998, 350-351; Langer, 1972, 1266; Mortimer, 1969, 145-148; Tillema, 1991, 62.]

(177-889) Pre-Crisis Phase (Janaury 1, 1944-February 15, 1959): The Nyasaland African National Congress (NANC) was established in 1944. British South Rhodesia joined British North Rhodesia (Zambia) and British Nyasaland (Malawi) to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland on October 23, 1953. Hastings Kamuzu Banda became president of the NANC in 1958.

(177-890) Crisis Phase (February 16, 1959-June 15, 1960): Nyasaland nationalists demonstrated for independence beginning on February 16, 1959. British government police and Nyasaland nationalists clashed in Fort Hill and Karonga on February 21, 1959. British government police and Nyasaland nationalists clashed in Blantyre and Limbe on February 22, 1959, resulting in the deaths of one individual. British government troops and Nyasaland nationalists clashed throughout Nyasaland on March 2-3, 1959, resulting in the deaths of 32 individuals. The government banned the NANC on March 3, 1959. The British government declared a state-of-emergency, and government police arrested Hastings Banda on March 3, 1959. British government police and Nyasaland nationalists clashed near Machinga on March 5, 1959, resulting in the deaths of five individuals. British government police and Nyasaland nationalists clashed in Mponela on March 6, 1959, resulting in the deaths of one individual. British government police and Nyasaland nationalists clashed in Mlanje on March 7, 1959, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. British government police and Nyasaland nationalists clashed near Santhe on March 10, 1959, resulting in the deaths of one individual. British government police and Nyasaland nationalists clashed in the Minsuka Hills area on March 15, 1959, resulting in the deaths of one individual. Orton Chirwa established the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). Hastings Banda was released from prison in Southern Rhodesia on April 1, 1960, and he became president of the MCP. The British government lifted the state-of-emergency on June 15, 1960. Fifty-two individuals were killed during the crisis.

(177-891) Post-Crisis Phase (June 16, 1960-July 6, 1964): The British government granted Nyasaland greater autonomy within the federation in August 1960. Parliamentary elections were held on August 15, 1961. Nyasaland was given the right to secede from the federation on December 19, 1962. Hastings Banda was sworn in as prime minister of Nyasaland on February 1, 1963. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was dissolved on January 1, 1964.  Malawi formally achieved its independence from Britain on July 6, 1964.

[Sources: Butterworth, 1976, 256-257; Facts on File, February 19-25, 1959, February 26-March 4, 1959, March 5-11, 1959, March 12-18, 1959, March 19-25, 1959; Jessup, 1998, 448-449; Keesing's Record of World Events, April 18-25, 1959, April 23-30, 1960, July 9-16, 1960; Langer, 1972, 1274; Tillema, 1991, 114-115.]

(178-892) Crisis Phase (January 1, 1956-December 31, 1960): The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) was established by Antonio Agostinho Neto in opposition to the Portuguese government in 1956. The Union of Angolan Peoples (UPA) was established in opposition to the Portuguese government in 1958. UPA rebels attacked a prison in Luanda on February 4, 1961.

(178-893) Conflict Phase (January 1, 1961-June 17, 1974): The UPA launched a rebellion against the Portuguese government in March 1961. Portugal deployed additional troops in Angola on March 18, 1961 to suppress the rebellion. The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) was established on April 1, 1962 with the merger of the UPA and the Democratic Party of Angola (DPA). Holden Roberto, leader of the FNLA, established a government-in-exile in Congo-Kinshasa on April 5, 1962. China provided military assistance to the FNLA beginning in December 1964. MPLA set up its headquarters in Congo-Brazzaville in 1964. Zaire provided military bases to the FNLA and MPLA. Algeria provided arms and training to the MPLA, and Zambia provided a military base for the MPLA. The Soviet Union provided some $54 million in military assistance to the MPLA from 1961 to 1975. The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) was established by Jonas Savimbi in 1966. China provided military assistance to UNITA. South Africa, Germany, France, Britain, and the US provided military assistance to Portugal. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) provided $32 million in covert military assistance to anti-MPLA groups in 1975. Each of the three major liberation movements ( UNITA, MPLA, FNLA) was largely supported by one of three major ethnic groups within the territory: Ovimbundu, the Mbundu, and Bakongo. The United Nations (UN) General Assembly called for mandatory sanctions against Portugal on November 17, 1967. The FNLA and MPLA established the Supreme Council for the Liberation of Angola (SCLA) on December 3, 1972. Representatives of the Portuguese government and UNITA signed a ceasefire agreement on June 17, 1974. Some 55,000 individuals, including some 4,000 Portuguese government soldiers, were killed during the conflict.

(178-894) Post-Conflict Phase (June 18, 1974-November 11, 1975): On July 27, 1974, General Spinola announced that Portugal would be willing to grant independence to Angola. Representatives of the Portuguese government and rebel groups signed the Alvor Agreement on January 15, 1975. Angola formally attained its independence on November 11, 1975.

[Sources: Arnold et al., 1991, 10-14; Butterworth, 1976, 299-302; Degenhardt, 1988, 8-12; Donelan and Grieve, 1973, 210-214; Jessup, 1998, 27-28; Keesing's Record of World Events, April 8-15, 1967; Langer, 1972, 1273; Levite et al., 1992, 163-207; Tillema, 1991, 115-118; Vanneman and James, 1976, 92-103; Weisburd, 1997, 77-79.]

(179-895) Crisis Phase (September 19, 1956-December 31, 1960): The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) was established by Amilcar Cabral and Luis de Almeida Cabral on September 19, 1956.

(179-896) Conflict Phase (January 1, 1961-September 9, 1974): The Front for the Liberation of Portuguese Guinea (FLPG) began a rebellion against the Portuguese government in 1961. The Portuguese government deployed some 30,000 troops to the colony beginning in September 1963. Guinea and Senegal provided military assistance to PAIGC. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) foreign ministers expressed support for PAIGC in 1965. Some 56,000 individuals fled as refugees to Senegal. The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) established a mission to provide humanitarian assistance to refugees in Senegal. Cuba provided military assistance (weapons, military advisors, and 60 medical personnel) in support of the PAIGG beginning in 1966. Portuguese government troops and PAIGC rebels clashed on December 30, 1971, resulting in the deaths of 215 rebels and eight Portuguese government soldiers. On November 22, 1972, the United Nations (UN) Security Council appealed to the government of Portugal to "cease immediately its military operations and all acts of repression" in Portuguese Guinea. PAIGG Secretary-General Amilcar Cabral was assassinated by dissident members of the PAIGC in Conakry, Guinea on January 20, 1973. Portugal denied involvement in the assassination on January 22, 1973. The OAU condemned the assassination on January 22, 1973. UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim condemned the assassination on January 22, 1973. Aristide Pereira was appointed as secretary-general of the PAIGC on February 2, 1973. PAIGC rebels shot down a Portuguese military aircraft on April 9, 1973, resulting in the death of one Portuguese military personnel. Portuguese government troops and PAIGC rebels clashed on June 1-15, 1973, resulting in the deaths of 45 rebels and 24 Portuguese soldiers. Portuguese government troops killed eight PAIGC rebels on June 19, 1973. Sweden provided economic assistance to the PAIGC beginning on September 6, 1973. PAIGC proclaimed the independence of Guinea-Bissau from Portugal on September 24, 1973, and the National People’s Assembly elected PAIGG Secretary-General Luis Almeida Cabral as president of the 15-member Council of State. Chad, Congo-Brazzaville, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Madagascar, Senegal, Tanzania, Togo, Upper Volta, and Yugoslavia recognized the independence of Guinea-Bissau on September 25, 1973. The UN General Assembly condemned Portugal for its "illegal occupation" of Guinea-Bissau on November 2, 1973. PAIGC rebels killed six Portuguese government soldiers near Tite on January 23, 1974. Guinea-Bissau formally attained its independence from Portugal on September 9, 1974. Some 15,000 individuals, including some 2,000 Portuguese government soldiers, were killed during the conflict. Some 56,000 individuals were displaced during the conflict. Portuguese government troops completed their withdrawal from Guinea-Bissau on October 15, 1974.

[Sources: Africa Diary, January 29-February 4, 1973, February 19-25, 1973, October 1-7, 1973; Africa Research Bulletin (ARB), January 1-31, 1973, June 1-30, 1973, September 1-30, 1973, October 1-31, 1973, February 1-28, 1974, September 1-30, 1974; Butterworth, 1976, 299-302; Chabal, 1981, 75-99; Dupoy and Dupoy, 1977, 1325; Jessup, 1998, 260-261; Keesing's Record of World Events, March 25-April 1, 1967, February 5-11, 1973, September 10-16, 1973, November 12-18, 1973, September 30-October 6, 1974, December 8-14, 1975; Tillema, 1991, 63-64; Weisburd, 1997, 79-80.]

(180-898) Crisis Phase (September 22, 1962-May 1, 1969): President Khrumah declared a state-of-emergency in Accra and Tema on September 22, 1962. President Khrumah survived an attempted assassination in Accra on January 2, 1964, resulting in the death of a security guard.  Some 99 percent of voters approved a one-party political system in a referendum held on January 31, 1964.  China agreed to provide economic assistance (interest free loan of $22.4 million) to the government on July 15, 1964.  China provided military assistance (weapons and 52 military advisors) to the government beginning in October 1964.  President Nkrumah dissolved the National Assembly on May 25, 1965. Parliamentary elections were held on June 9, 1965, and the CPP won 198 out of 198 seats in the National Assembly. President Nkrumah was re-elected without opposition by the National Assembly on June 10, 1965. President Nkrumah was overthrown in a military rebellion led by General Joseph Ankrah on February 24, 1966, resulting in the deaths of some 27 individuals. The eight-member National Liberation Council (NLC) headed by General Ankrah took control of the government on February 25, 1966.  China ended economic and military assistance to the government on February 25, 1966.  Guinea and Mali condemned the military rebellion on February 26, 1966. The NLC suspended the constitution on February 26, 1966. Nigeria provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the NLC on March 3, 1966. Britain and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the NLC on March 4, 1966. The Soviet Union provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the NLC on March 16, 1966. The government suppressed a military rebellion led by Lt. Samuel Arthur and Lt. Moses Yeboah in Accra on April 17, 1967, resulting in the deaths of two government soldiers. Lt. Arthur and Lt. Yeboah were sentenced to death on May 5, 1967, and the officers were executed on May 9, 1967. The NLC established the Executive Council of Ministers on July 1, 1967. General Ankrah resigned as head-of-state on April 2, 1969, and he was replaced by General Akwasi Afrifa. The government lifted the ban on political parties on May 1, 1969. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(180-899) Post-Crisis Phase (May 2, 1969-January 12, 1972): Parliamentary elections were held on August 29, 1969, and the Progress Party (PP) won 105 out of 140 seats in the parliament. The National Alliance of Liberals (NAL) won 29 seats in the parliament. Prime Minister Kofi Busia formed a civilian government as prime minister on September 3, 1969. Edward Askufo-Addo of the PP was elected president by the Electoral College on August 28, 1970.

(180-900) Crisis Phase (January 13, 1972-September 24, 1979): Prime Minister Kofi Busia was deposed in a military coup led by Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong on January 13, 1972. Colonel Acheampong suspended the constitution, dissolved the parliament, and banned political parties on January 13, 1972. The nine-member National Redemption Council (NRC) chaired by Colonel Acheampong took control of the government on January 14, 1972. The military government supressed a rebellion on January 15, 1972. On November 14, 1972, eight individuals were sentpercent of voters approved the union of civilian and military institutions in Ghana in a referendum held on March 30, 1978.  General Acheampong was forced to resign as head-of-state on July 5, 1978, and General Frederick Akuffo took control of the government on July 6, 1978. The SMC declared a state-of-emergency on November 6, 1978. The SMC lifted the state-of-emergency and ban on political party activity on January 1, 1979. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Lt. Jerry Rawlings on May 15, 1979. General Akuffo was overthrown in a military rebellion on June 4, 1979, and the ten-member Armed Force Revolutionary Council (AFRC) headed by Lt. Jerry Rawlings took control of the government on June 5, 1979. Parliamentary elections were held on June 18 and July 9, 1979, and the People’s National Party (PNP) won 71 out of 140 seats in the National Assembly.  The Popular Front Party (PFP) won 42 seats in the National Assembly.  Six military officers, including General Frederick Akuffo and Lt. General Akwasi Afrifa, were executed on June 26, 1979. Hilla Limann of the PNP was elected president with some 62 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections held on July 9, 1979, and he was inaugurated as president on September 24, 1979. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(180-901) Post-Crisis Phase (September 25, 1979-December 30, 1981): Some 1,000 individuals were killed in political violence between September 1979 and December 1981.

(180-902) Crisis Phase (December 31, 1981-May 17, 1992): President Limann was deposed in a military coup led by Lt. Jerry Rawlings on December 31, 1981, resulting in the deaths of some 40 individuals. The Provisional National Defense Council (PNDC) headed by Lt. Rawlings took control of the government on January 1, 1982. The PNDC suspended the constitution and banned political parties. The government suppressed a military rebellion on November 23, 1982. Government troops suppressed military rebellions on March 2 and June 19, 1983, resulting in the deaths of 26 individuals. On August 4, 1983, sixteen military personnel were convicted and sentenced to death for their involvement in the June 1983 military rebellion. The government suppressed a military rebellion on March 23, 1984, and 14 individuals were executed for their involvement in the military rebellion on March 23-26, 1984. On April 5, 1984, eight military personnel were convicted and sentenced to death. In April 1984, the Ghanaian Democracy Movement (GDM) was established by John Ashibe Mensah in London in opposition to the government of Lt. Rawlings. The government suppressed a military rebellion on February 2, 1985, and six individuals were convicted and sentenced to death for their involvement in the military rebellion on April 1, 1985. On May 15, 1986, nine individuals were convicted and sentenced to death for plotting to overthrow the government (seven of these individuals were executed on June 22, 1986). The Movement for Freedom and Justice (MFJ) headed by Adu Boahan was established in 1990. On May 10, 1991, Lt. Rawlings announced that Ghana would return to constitutional rule in 1992. A new constitution was approved by some 93 percent of voters in a referendum held on April 28, 1992, and Lt. Rawlings lifted the ban on political parties on May 17, 1992. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.