(61-336) Crisis Phase (April 24, 1916-July 11, 1917): Some 1,600 Irish nationalists led by Patrick Pearse, James Connolly, and Sir Roger Casement rebelled against the British government in Dublin on April 24, 1916, and the British government proclaimed martial law in Ireland on April 27, 1916. British troops suppressed the rebellion on April 29, 1916. Some 250 Irish civilians, 64 Irish nationalists, and 132 government soldiers were killed during the Easter Rebellion. Some 3,000 Irish nationalists were arrested for their involvement in the rebellion. Fifteen Irish nationalists, including Patrick Pearse, James Connolly, and Sir Roger Casement were executed for their involvement in the rebellion on August 3, 1916. On June 15, 1917, the British government granted amnesty to hundreds of Irish nationalists imprisoned for their involvement in the Eastern Rebellion. Eamon de Valera, leader of Sinn Fein, was released from prison on July 11, 1917. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(61-337) Post-Crisis Phase (July 12, 1917-January 20, 1919): Eamon de Valera was elected president of the Irish Republic by members of the Sinn Fein on October 27, 1917. Eamon de Valera was arrested by British police on May 18, 1918. Parliamentary elections were held on November 1918, and Sinn Fein won 73 seats out of 106 seats allocated to Ireland in the British House of Commons. The Ulster Unionists (UU) won 26 seats in the British House of Commons.

(61-338) Crisis Phase (January 21, 1919-November 25, 1919): The Sinn Fein members of the British parliament established an Irish parliament (Dail Eireann), and declared Ireland’s independence from Britain on January 21, 1919. Irish nationalists killed two government policemen near Soloheadbeg on January 21, 1919. Eamon de Valera escaped from prison on February 3, 1919, and he took refuge in the US. The Irish Volunteers formally became the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in August 1919. The Irish parliament was declared illegal by the British government on September 11, 1919.

(61-339) Conflict Phase (November 26, 1919-July 11, 1921): Members of the IRA, military wing of Sinn Fein, rebelled against the British government beginning on November 26, 1919. IRA rebels killed a total of 18 government policemen in 1919. The British government deployed the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC), also known as Black and Tans, in Northern Ireland on May 15, 1920. IRA rebels killed fourteen government personnel in Dublin, and RIC personnel killed 12 Irish civilians in Dublin on November 21, 1920 (Bloody Sunday). IRA rebels led by Tom Barry and RIC personnel clashed near Kilmichael on November 28, 1920, resulting in the deaths of 17 RIC personnel and three IRA rebels. The Vatican, represented by Archbishop Clune of Australia, attempted to mediate negotiations between British and Irish representatives between December 1920 and January 1921. The British parliament approved the Government of Ireland Act on December 23, 1920, which provided for separate parliaments for Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and the establishment of a Council for Ireland. IRA rebels killed a total of 176 government policemen and 54 government soldiers in 1920. IRA rebels led by Tom Barry and government troops clashed near Crossberry on March 19, 1921, resulting in the deaths of 39 government soldiers and three IRA rebels. Parliamentary elections were held on May 13-24, 1921, and Sinn Fein won 124 out of 128 seats in the parliament. The IRA agreed to a cessation of military hostilities on July 10, 1921, and the ceasefire went into effect on July 11, 1921. IRA rebels killed 228 government policemen and 96 government soldiers in 1921. Some 425 government policemen, 150 government soldiers, 650 Irish nationalists, and 200 Irish civilians were killed during the conflict.

(61-340) Post-Conflict Phase (July 12, 1921-January 15, 1922): British and Irish representatives held negotiations between July 14 and December 6, 1921. British and Irish representatives signed a peace treaty on December 6, 1921, which provided for the dominion status within the British Commonwealth for all but six Irish counties in northern Ireland. The Dail Eireann formally ratified the peace treaty on January 15, 1922.

[Sources: Buckland 1972; Clodfelter, 1992, 588, 589-590; Curran 1980; Gilbert, 1997, 402-404; Jackson, 1999, 142-274; Jessup, 1998, 670; Kostick 1996; Langer, 1972, 983-984; Smith 2000.]

(62-342) Crisis Phase (July 26, 1909-October 27, 1913): Government troops suppressed a rebellion in Barcelona on July 26-August 1, 1909, resulting in the deaths of eight government soldiers and 104 rebels. Five individuals were executed for their involvement in the rebellion (La Semana Tragica). On October 9, 1909, Francisco Ferrer was sentenced to death for his involvement in the Barcelona rebellion. Francisco Ferrer was executed on October 13, 1909. Prime Minister Antonio Maura resigned on October 22, 1909, and Jose Canalejas Mendez of the Liberal Party (LP) formed government as prime minister. Prime Minister Canalejas Mendez was assassinated on November 12, 1912. The Conservatives formed a government on October 27, 1913. Some 150 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(62-344) Crisis Phase (September 12, 1923-May 16, 1925): A military rebellion broke out against the government in Barcelona on September 12, 1923, and General Miguel Primo de Rivera seized control of the government on September 13, 1923. General Primo de Rivera dissolved the parliament on September 16, 1923, and proclaimed martial law on September 17, 1923. General Primo de Rivera suspended martial law on May 16, 1925.

(62-345) Post-Crisis Phase (May 17, 1925-January 28, 1929): General Primo de Rivera dissolved the military directorate, and formed a government as prime minister on December 3, 1925. Spain withdrew from the League of Nations (LON) on June 10, 1926, but rejoined on March 22, 1928. The government suppressed an attempted rebellion in Catalonia on November 2, 1926.

(62-346) Crisis Phase (January 29, 1929-July 16, 1936): The government suppressed a military rebellion in Ciudad Real on January 29, 1929. Prime Minister Primo de Rivera resigned on January 28, 1930, and General Damaso Berenguer was appointed as prime minister on January 30, 1930. Miguel Primo de Rivera died on March 16, 1930. The government suppressed a military rebellion in Jaca on December 12-13, 1930. King Alfonso XIII restored the constitution on February 8, 1931. Municipal elections were held on April 12, 1931, and the Republicans won a majority of the votes. Niceto Alcala Zamora, the republican leader, called for the abdication of King Alfonso XIII. King Alfonso XIII departed from Spain on April 14, 1931, and a provisional government headed by President Alcala Zamora was established on April 14, 1931. Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held on June 28, 1931, and the Socialist Party (SP) won 116 out of 457 seats. The Radical Socialist Party (RSP) won 60 seats in the Constituent Assembly, and the Republican Action (Accion Republicana - AR) won 30 seats in the Constituent Assembly. Manuel Azana formed a republican government as prime minister in October 1931. The Constituent Assembly declared King Alfonso XIII guilty of treason on November 12, 1931, and approved a new constitution on December 9, 1931. Niceto Alcala Zamora was elected president on December 10, 1931. The government suppressed a military rebellion led by General Jose Sanjurjo in Seville on August 10, 1932, and the government suppressed a rebellion in Barcelona on January 8, 1933. Municipal elections were held on April 23, 1933. Prime Minister Azafia resigned on September 8, 1933, and Alejandro Lerroux formed a coalition government on September 12, 1933. Prime Minister Lerroux resigned on October 3, 1933, and Martinez Barrios formed a government on October 8, 1933. The parliament (Cortes) was dissolved on October 9, 1933. Parliamentary elections were held on November 19, 1933, and right-wing political parties won 207 seats in the Cortes. The left-wing political parties won 99 seats in the Cortes. Government troops suppressed a rebellion in Barcelona on December 9-18, 1933. Prime Minister Martinez Barrios resigned on December 16, 1933, and Alejandro Lerroux formed a government on December 17, 1933. Alejandro Lerroux formed a government on October 4, 1934. Government troops suppressed left-wing rebellions in Catalonia and Asturias provinces on October 5-18, 1934, resulting in the deaths of some 900 rebels, 300 government security personnel, and 40 civilians. Some 30,000 individuals were imprisoned for their involvement in the rebellions. The Cortes was dissolved on January 4, 1936, and the left-wing Popular Front (PF) was established on January 16, 1936. Parliamentary elections were held on February 16 and March 3, 1936, and the PF won 278 out of 470 seats in the Cortes. The right-wing National Front (NF) won 134 seats in the Cortes. Prime Minister Portela Valladares resigned on February 19, 1936, and Manuel Azana formed a PF government on February 20, 1936. The Cortes voted to remove President Zamora from office on April 10, 1936, and appointed Manuel Azana as provisional president. Manuel Azana was elected president on May 10, 1936. Santiago Casares Quiroga formed a government as prime minister on May 13, 1936. Some 2,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(62-347) Conflict Phase (July 17, 1936-March 31, 1939): Nationalists rebelled against the republican government of President Azana and Prime Minister Casares Quiroga beginning on July 17, 1936. Prime Minister Casares Quiroga resigned on July 19, 1936. General Franco took command of the nationalist troops on July 20, 1936. Jose Giral y Pereira of the PF formed a republican government as prime minister, and requested French military assistance (weapons, ammunition, and military aircraft) on July 19-20, 1936. Prime Minister Leon Blum of France rejected the request for military assistance on July 25, 1936, but he did agree to sell military aircraft to the republican government through the government of Mexico. General Franco requested military assistance from Germany and Italy on July 22, 1936. Italy agreed to provide military assistance (eleven military transport aircraft) in support of the nationalist rebels beginning on July 25, 1936. Germany agreed to provide military assistance (thirty transport aircraft, 85 pilots and technicians, six fighter aircraft) in support of the nationalist rebels beginning on July 26, 1936. France imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the republican government and nationalist rebels on August 9, 1936. Poland, Sweden, and the Netherlands imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the republican government and nationalist rebels on August 11, 1936. Britain imposed military sanctions (arms embargo) against the republican government and nationalist rebels on August 15, 1936. Mexico provided military assistance to the republican government. Prime Minister Giral y Pereira resigned on September 4, 1936, and Largo Caballero of the PF formed a republican government as prime minister on September 5, 1936. Twenty-four European countries (Albania, Austria, Belgium, Britain, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Romania, Soviet Union, Turkey, Yugoslavia) established the Non-Intervention Committee (NIC) in London on September 9, 1936. The Basques surrendered San Sebastian to nationalist rebels on September 13, 1936. The republican government protested against German, Italian, and Portuguese military assistance to the nationalist rebels on September 15, 1936. Uruguay imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the republican government on September 22, 1936. Portugal joined the NIC on September 28, 1936, and imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the republican government on October 23, 1936. General Franco was named head-of-state of Nationalist Spain on October 1, 1936. The Soviet Union provided military assistance (military aircraft, tanks, ammunition) in support of the republican government beginning on October 15, 1936. Germany deployed some 10,000 troops in support of the nationalist rebels beginning on November 6, 1936. Nationalist rebels began a siege of Madrid on November 7, 1936. Germany and Italy provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the nationalist government of General Franco on November 18, 1936. The republican government referred the matter of German and Italian aggression to the League of Nations (LON) Council on November 27, 1936. The LON Council met to discuss the matter on December 10-12, 1936, but did not take any action to intervene in the conflict. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) provided humanitarian assistance to individuals displaced during the conflict beginning in 1936. Britain and France attempted to mediate a ceasefire agreement between the parties beginning on December 4, 1936. Italy deployed some 50,000 troops in support of the nationalist rebels beginning on December 6, 1936, and Italian troops took part in a nationalist rebel attack against Malaga on February 3, 1937. The NIC agreed to border and maritime control operations, including 130 personnel monitoring the French-Spanish border and 550 personnel headed by Rear-Admiral Olwer of the Netherlands supervising the unloading of cargo at ports, to enforce military sanctions against the republican government and nationalist rebels on March 8, 1937. Prime Minister Caballero resigned on May 15, 1937, and Juan Negrin formed a socialist government on May 17, 1937. Republican military aircraft attacked the Italian naval ship Barletta near Palma on May 24, 1937, and republican military aircraft attacked the German naval ship Deutschland near Palma on May 29, 1937. German warships responded by bombarding republican positions in Almeria on May 31, 1937. The German naval ship Leipzig was attacked by a republican submarine on June 18, 1937. Germany and Italy withdrew from border and maritime control operations on June 23, 1937. General Franco was named as prime minister of the nationalist government on January 31, 1938. Nationalist troops captured Barcelona on January 26, 1939. Britain and France provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of General Franco on February 27, 1939, and President Azana resigned on February 28, 1939. Prime Minister Negrin was deposed in a military coup led by General Segismundo Casado on March 6, 1939. The National Defense Council (NDC) headed by General Jose Miaja took control of the government on March 7, 1939. Republican troops surrendered to nationalist troops in Madrid and Valencia on March 28-31, 1939. Some 370,000 individuals were killed during the conflict, including 110,000 republican soldiers, 90,000 nationalist soldiers, 165,000 civilians, 6,000 Italian soldiers, and 300 German soldiers. Some 440,000 Spaniards fled as refugees to France.

(62-348) Post-Conflict Phase (April 1, 1939-July 6, 1947): General Franco took control of the government on April 1, 1939. The US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of General Franco on April 1, 1939. The NIC was formally dissolved on April 20, 1939. Italian and German troops began their withdrawal from Spain on May 20, 1939, and the withdrawal was completed on June 30, 1939. Some 100,000 individuals were executed by the government between 1940 and 1943. Don Juan, the Bourbon claimant to the Spanish throne, called for the resignation of General Franco and the restoration of the Spanish monarchy on March 22, 1945. Jose Giral formed a republican government-in-exile as prime minister in Mexico City on August 22, 1945. The governments of the US, Britain, and France appealed to the people of Spain to overthrow General Franco and restore democracy on March 4, 1946. The United Nations (UN) General Assembly imposed diplomatic sanctions (diplomatic boycott) against Spain on December 12, 1946. Italy withdrew its ambassador from Spain on December 20, 1946. Britain withdrew its ambassador from Spain on December 25, 1946, and the Netherlands withdrew its ambassador from Spain on December 28, 1946. Prime Minister Giral resigned on January 27, 1947, and Rodolfo Llopis became prime minister of a republican government-in-exile on February 9, 1947. General Franco became head-of-state for life following a national referendum on July 6, 1947. The national referendum restored the monarchy in Spain (although temporarily without a monarch), and a regency council was established. Some 100,000 individuals were killed in political violence between April 1939 and July 1947.

(62-349) Post-Crisis Phase (July 7, 1947-December 31, 1972): Prime Minister Llopis resigned on August 6, 1947, and Alvaro de Albornoz became prime minister of the republican government-in-exile on August 27, 1947. The UN General Assembly lifted diplomatic sanctions against Spain on November 4, 1950. Some 250,000 workers went on strike to protest policies of the government on March 12, 1951. Sixteen individuals were sentenced to death for anti-government activities on February 7-11, 1952, and five of the individuals were executed on March 14, 1952. Britain lifted military sanctions against the government on July 4, 1952 (Britain had imposed the military sanctions on August 15, 1936). Some 60,000 workers went on strike in protest of government policies on April 7-17, 1956. The Spanish Union (SU) was established in opposition to the government on February 1, 1959. The Christian Democratic Left Party (CDLP) was established on May 14, 1959. Two individuals were sentenced to death for bombings in Madrid on August 13, 1963, and the individuals were executed on August 17, 1963. A new constitution was approved in a referendum on December 14, 1964. The Christian Democratic Union (CDU) was established in opposition to the government in January 1965. Prince Juan Carlos de Bourbon was named by General Franco as his successor and heir to the Spanish throne on July 22, 1969.

(62-350) Crisis Phase (January 1, 1973-November 22, 1975): The Revolutionary Anti-Fascist and Patriotic Front (Frente Revolucionario Anti-fascista y Patriotico - FRAP) was established in opposition to the government of General Franco in 1973. General Franco resigned as prime minister on June 8, 1973, and Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco formed a government as prime minister on June 11, 1973. Carlos Arias Navarro formed a government as prime minister on January 2, 1974. Prince Juan Carlos became provisional head-of-state on July 19, 1974, and General Franco resumed his powers on September 1, 1974. On September 12, 1975, three FRAP rebels were sentenced to death for the murder of a government policeman in Madrid on July 14, 1975. On September 18, 1975, five FRAP rebels were sentenced to death for the murder of a civil guard on August 16, 1975. Three FRAF rebels were executed near Madrid on September 27, 1975. Britain and the Vatican condemned the executions on September 27, 1975. FRAF rebels killed three government policemen in Madrid on October 1, 1975. East Germany imposed diplomatic sanctions (suspension of diplomatic relations) against the government on October 3, 1975. Government police and FRAF rebels clashed in Barcelona on October 8, 1975, resulting in the deaths of three civilians and two government policemen. Prince Juan Carlos became provisional head-of-state on October 30, 1975. General Franco died on November 20, 1975, and Prince Juan Carlos was crowned as King Juan Carlos I on November 22, 1975. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(62-351) Post-Crisis Phase (November 23, 1975-December 6, 1978): Carlos Arias Navarro formed a government as prime minister on December 13, 1975. Prime Minister Arias Navarro resigned on July 1, 1976, and Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez formed a government as prime minister on July 8, 1976. Political reforms were approved in a national referendum in December 1976. The government legalized the CDU, Socialist Party (SP), and Popular Socialist Party (PSP) on February 218, 1977. The government legalized the Communist Party of Spain (CPS) on April 9, 1977. Prime Minister Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez and Interior Minister Martin Villa established the Union of the Democratic Center (UDC) on May 3, 1977. Parliamentary elections were held on June 15, 1977, and the UDC won 165 out of 350 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (SSWP) won 118 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and the CPS won 20 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. A new constitution establishing a constitutional monarchy was approved by the parliament on October 31, 1978, and the constitution was approved in a referendum on December 6, 1978.

[Sources: Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 261-267; Clodfelter, 1992, 587, 591-592, 593-610; Degenhardt, 1988, 337-342; Facts on File, November 3-November 9, 1950, February 15-21, 1952, March 14-20, 1952, July 4-10, 1952, April 11-17, 1956, October 4, 1975, October 11, 1975, December 27, 1975, April 16, 1977, June 18, 1977; Jackson 1965; Jellinek 1969; Jessup, 1998, 684-687; Keesing's Record of World Events, January 25-February 1, 1947, February 8-15, 1947, September 13-20, 1947, June 25-July 1, 1973, December 17-23, 1973, October 21-27, 1974, March 31-April 6, 1975, November 24-30, 1975, January 16, 1976, July 30, 1976, February 16, 1979; Langer, 1972, 694-698, 991-995, 1185-1186; Payne 1970; Peers 1936; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1925 (supplement), 221, 1931, 527, 1933, 600, 1936, 957-961, 1937 (vol. 2), 397-404, 1938, 710-711; Thomas 1961; Walters, 1952, 721-730.]

(63-353) Crisis Phase (July 28, 1904-December 8, 1917): Viacheslav Plehve, Czar Nicholas II’s Minister of the Interior, was assassinated by revolutionaries on July 28, 1904. Some 80,000 Russian workers went on strike in St. Petersburg on January 7, 1905. Russian troops fired on a demonstration led by Father Gapon in front of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg on January 9, 1905, resulting in the deaths of some 200 individuals. Government troops fired on demonstrators in Riga, Latvia on January 13, 1905, resulting in the deaths of 70 individuals. Government troops fired on demonstrators in Warsaw, Poland on January 14, 1905, resulting in the deaths of 93 individuals. Some 2,000 Jews were killed by government troops in Odessa on the Black Sea in June 1905. Government troops fired on demonstrators in Reval, Estonia on October 16, 1905, resulting in the deaths of 150 individuals. Russian workers went on strike in St. Petersburg from October 20-30, 1905. On October 30, 1905, Czar Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto, which granted the country a constitution and an elected parliament. Some 4,000 Jews were killed in pogroms in October and November 1905. Sergei Witt was appointed as prime minister, and he ordered the arrest of 190 members of the St. Petersburg soviet (council) on December 16, 1905. Russian workers rebelled against the government in Moscow on December 15, 1905, but the rebellion was suppressed by government troops on January 1, 1906. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the Moscow rebellion, and some 20,000 individuals were killed in political violence in 1905 and 1906. Parliamentary elections were held on April 4, 1906, and the Constitutional Democrats (Kadets) won 180 out of 524 seats in the Russian Duma (parliament). Prime Minister Witt was dismissed on May 2, 1906, and Ivan Goremykin was appointed as prime minister on May 3, 1906. The Russian Duma convened on May 10, 1906. Some 100 Jews were killed in a pogrom in Bialystok on June 14-15, 1906. Czar Nicholas II dissolved the Russian Duma on July 21, 1906. The Russian Duma reconvened from March 5 to June 16, 1907. The Third Duma convened between November 1, 1907 and June 21, 1912. Some 780 Russians were executed for anti-government activities in 1908. Prime Minister Peter Stolypin was shot by an anarchist in Kiev on September 14, 1911, and he died on September 18, 1911. Vladimir Kokovtsev was appointed as prime minister on September 19, 1911. The Bolsheviks split from the RSDP in January 1912. Some 170 Russian workers were killed during demonstrations against the government in Siberia in April 1912. Muslim nationalists in Turkestan rebelled against the government in 1916, but the rebellion was suppressed by Russian government troops. Some 3,733 Russian civilians, 275 government troops, and 5,000 Muslims were killed during the rebellion. Russian workers and soldiers demonstrated and rioted in opposition to the government in Petrograd on February 23-27, 1917, resulting in the deaths of some 1,500 individuals. Czar Nicholas II suspended the Duma on February 26, 1917, and Prince Golitsyn resigned as chairman of the Council of Ministers on February 27, 1917. Russians demonstrated against the government of Czar Nicholas II in Petrograd on February 26-27, 1917, resulting in the deaths of 587 demonstrators and 728 Russian soldiers. Some 40 Russian naval officers were killed during a rebellion at the Kronstadt naval base on February 28, 1917. Czar Nicholas II abdicated in favor of his brother, Grand Duke Mikhail Aleksandrovich, on March 2, 1917 (Grand Duke Mikhail Aleksandrovich abdicated on March 3, 1917). The Russian Duma established a provisional government headed by Prince George Yevgenyevich Lvov on March 2, 1917. Vladimir Lenin returned to Petrograd from exile in Switzerland on April 3, 1917. The provisional government suppressed an attempted rebellion by the Bolsheviks in Petrograd on July 3-5, 1917, and Vladimir Lenin fled to Finland. Prime Minister Lvov resigned on July 7, 1917, and he was replaced by Minister of War Aleksandr Kerensky on July 8, 1917. General Lavr Kornilov unsuccessfully attempted to overthrow the government of Prime Minister Kerensky on August 24-28, 1917. Bolsheviks revolted against the provisional government on October 24-25, 1917, resulting in the deaths of five individuals. The Council of People’s Commissars (CPC) headed by Vladimir Lenin took control of the government on October 26, 1917. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on November 12, 1917, and the Social Revolutionaries (SR) won 420 seats. The Bolsheviks won 225 seats in the Constituent Assembly. Some 35,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(63-354) Conflict Phase (December 9, 1917-November 16, 1920): General A.M. Kaledin and General Lavr Kornilov led a Don Cossack rebellion against the Bolshevik government in southern Russia beginning on December 9, 1917. The Constituent Assembly convened in Petrograd on January 5, 1918, but the Bolsheviks dissolved the Constituent Assembly on January 6, 1918. The Bolshevik government nationalized all agricultural land on February 19, 1918. The Bolshevik government moved to Moscow on March 12, 1918, and Leon Trotsky was appointed as Commissar of War on April 13, 1918. Japanese and British troops occupied Vladivostok in eastern Russia (Siberia) on April 5, 1918. General Anton Denikin took command of the anti-Bolshevik troops in southern Russia after the death of General Kornilov on April 13, 1918. Czech troops, which were a part of French military, rebelled against the Bolshevik government on May 26, 1918. Czech troops captured Samara on June 8, 1918, and the SR formed a government in opposition to the Bolshevik government in Samara on June 9, 1918. The British, French, and US governments agreed to intervene on behalf of the anti-Bolsheviks in northern Russia on June 3, 1918, and British troops commanded by General Edmund Ironside occupied Murmansk on June 23, 1918. Some 5,000 US troops were deployed in northern Russia. The Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic (RSFSR) adopted a constitution on July 10, 1918. Czar Nicholas II and his family were executed by Bolshevik officials in Ekaterinburg on July 17, 1918. British and French troops occupied Archangel on August 2, 1918. Some 10,000 US troops landed at Vladivostok in eastern Siberia on August 10, 1918, and the troops guarded the Trans-Siberian railway from Lake Baikal to Vladivostok (joining 4,000 Canadian, 3,000 French, and 2,000 British troops). Vladimir Lenin survived an attempted assassination by a member of the SR party on August 30, 1918. Bolshevik troops captured Samara on October 2, 1918. Admiral Alexander Kolchak established an anti-Bolshevik government in Omsk in eastern Russia in November 1918. Admiral Kolchak’s troops captured Perm from the Bolsheviks in December 1918. Bolshevik troops captured Kiev, Ukraine on February 6, 1919. General Denikin assumed command of anti-Bolshevik troops in southeastern Russia on February 15, 1919. French troops, which had intervened in the Ukraine beginning in 1918, were withdrawn from Odessa on April 5, 1919 (French troops were evacuated from Sevastopol on April 30, 1919). Bolshevik troops commanded by General Mikhail Tukhachevsky defeated Admiral Kolchak’s troops in southern Russia on May 4, 1919. General Denikin’s troops captured Odessa on August 23, 1919, and captured Kiev on August 31, 1919.  US troops withdrew from northern Russia on September 19, 1919.  Some 250 US troops died during the intervention in Russia. French and British troops were withdrawn from Murmansk in northern Russia on October 12, 1919. Bolshevik troops recaptured Kiev on December 16, 1919.  Admiral Kolchak resigned as commander of anti-Bolshevik troops on January 4, 1920, and he was executed by the Bolsheviks on February 4, 1920.  US troops began their withdrawal from eastern Russia (Vladivostok) on January 8, 1920.  Bolshevik troops captured Omsk on February 7, 1920.  Bolshevik troops attacked Nikolaevsk in eastern Russia in March 1920, resulting in the deaths of 700 Japanese troops and civilians and 6,000 Russian civilians.  Allied troops completed their withdrawal from eastern Russia in April 1920, although Japanese troops remained in eastern Russia until October 1922.  General Peter Wrangel assumed command of anti-Bolshevik troops in the Crimea on April 7, 1920. Britain appealed to the Russian government for a ceasefire on April 11, 1920, but Russia rejected the appeal on April 20, 1920. The US lifted economic sanctions (trade embargo) against Russia on July 8, 1920.  A. S. Antonov led a peasant rebellion against the Bolshevik government in the Tambov Province beginning in August 1920.  Some 5,000 peasants and 1,700 Bolsheviks were killed in the conflict, and some 2,500 peasants were executed following the suppression of the rebellion in August 1921.  General Wrangel’s troops were evacuated from the Crimea by British ships on November 11-16, 1920.  Some 25 million Russian civilians and 500,000 military personnel died during the conflict, and some one million Russians fled as refugees to other countries.

(63-355) Post-Conflict Phase (November 17, 1920-December 30, 1922): Russian sailors at the Kronstadt naval base rebelled against the Bolshevik government beginning on February 23, 1921. Some 50,000 Bolshevik troops led by General Mikhail Tukhachevsky suppressed the rebellion on March 18, 1921, resulting in the deaths of some 600 rebels and 700 Bolshevik troops. Josef Stalin was appointed as general-secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) on April 3, 1922. The Bolshevik government established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) on December 30, 1922.

[Sources: Bradley 1968; Clodfelter, 1992, 611-612, 615-618, 621, 622-623, 627; Ference, 1994, 337-391; Langer, 1972, 749-755, 1028-1036, 1214-1219; Lincoln 1989; Simpson, 1939, 62-116; Skran, 1995, 32-40.]

(64-357) Post-Crisis Phase (March 27, 1907-December 2, 1916): The government approved land reforms in December 1907. King Carol I died on October 10, 1914, and Prince Ferdinand ascended to the throne on October 11, 1914. Romania declared war against Austria-Hungary on August 27, 1916.

(64-358) Crisis Phase (December 3, 1916-March 28, 1923): On December 3, 1916, King Ferdinand I fled to Moldavia after Central Powers troops attack and occupy much of the country. Prime Minister Ion Bratianu resigned on February 9, 1918, and King Ferdinand I appointed General Alexandru Averescu as prime minister on February 10, 1918. Prime Minister Averescu resigned on March 12, 1918, and Alexandru Marghiloman formed a government as prime minister on March 13, 1918. Prime Minister Marghiloman resigned on October 24, 1918, and King Ferdinand I appointed General Coanda as prime minister on November 8, 1918. King Ferdinand I dismissed Prime Minister Coanda on November 12, 1918. King Ferdinand I dissolved the parliament on November 25, 1918, and appointed Julius Maniu as prime minister on November 29, 1918. Prime Minister Maniu resigned on September 27, 1919, and Ion Bratianu, leader of the LP, formed a government as prime minister on December 14, 1918. Parliamentary elections were held on November 8, 1919, and the LP won 120 out of 247 contested seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Alexandru Vaida-Voevod, a leader of the National Party (NP), formed a government as prime minister on December 2, 1919. King Ferdinand I dismissed Prime Minister Vaida-Voevod on March 13, 1920, and General Averescu formed a government as prime minister on March 14, 1920. Parliamentary elections were held on May 12, 1920, and the People’s Party (PP) won 209 out of 369 contested seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The LP won 17 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Romania was admitted to the League of Nations (LON) on September 14, 1920. King Ferdinand I dismissed Prime Minister Averescu on December 17, 1921, and Take Ionescu, a leader of the Conservative Party (CP), was appointed prime minister on December 18, 1921. Ion Bratianu, a leader of the LP, was appointed as prime minister on January 18, 1922. Parliamentary elections were held in March 1922, the LP won 260 out of 369 contested seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Chamber of Deputies approved a new constitution on March 28, 1923.

(64-359) Post-Crisis Phase (March 29, 1923-January 17, 1938): The government banned the Communist Party of Romania (CPR) on December 18, 1924 (28 members of the illegal party were arrested in Bucharest on September 1, 1925). Some 15,000 individuals demonstrated in Bucharest against the government of Prime Minister Bratianu on May 17, 1925. Crown Prince Carol renounced his right to the Romanian throne on December 28, 1925 (he went into exile with his mistress, Magda Lupescu). Prince Carol’s son, Michael, was named the new crown prince. Prime Minister Bratianu resigned on March 27, 1926, and General Averescu formed a government as prime minister on March 30, 1926. The parliament was dissolved on April 3, 1926. Parliamentary elections were held on May 25, 1926, and the PP won 292 out of 387 contested seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The LP won 16 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The National Peasants’ Party (NPP) headed by Julius Maniu was established in October 1926. Prime Minister Averescu resigned on June 3, 1927, and Ion Bratianu of the LP formed a government as prime minister on June 22, 1927. Corneliu Zelea-Codreanu established the right-wing Iron Guard on June 24, 1927. Parliamentary elections were held on July 7, 1927, and the LP won 298 out of 387 contested seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The NPP won 49 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. King Ferdinand I died on July 21, 1927, and Prince Michael assumed the throne on July 24, 1927. Prince Nicolae, uncle of King Michael, was appointed as regent until the five-year old King Michael attained adulthood. Prime Minister Bratianu died on November 24, 1927, and Vintila Bratianu formed a government as prime minister on November 28, 1927. Some 100,000 peasants demonstrated in Bucharest against the government of Prime Minister Bratianu on March 18, 1928. Prime Minister Bratianu resigned on November 3, 1928, and Julius Maniu formed a government as prime minister on November 9, 1928. Parliamentary elections were held on December 12-15, 1928, and the NPP won 324 out of 387 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. On July 8, 1929, forty members of the Iron Guard were arrested for allegedly plotting to overthrow the government. Prince Carol returned to Romania on June 6, 1930. Prime Minister Maniu resigned on June 7, 1930, and Gheorghe Mironescu formed a new government (Julius Maniu resumed the position of prime minister on June 11, 1930). King Michael was overthrown on June 8, 1930, and his father, Prince Carol, was proclaimed King Carol (Charles) II on June 9, 1930. Prime Minister Maniu resigned on October 6, 1930, and Gheorghe Mironescu formed a government as prime minister on October 10, 1930. Prime Minister Mironescu resigned on April 4, 1931, and King Carol II appointed Nicolae Iorga as prime minister of a government of national unity on April 18, 1931. Prime Minister Iorga resigned on May 31, 1932, and Alexander Vaida-Voevod formed a government on June 6, 1932. Parliamentary elections were held on June 1, 1932, and the National Union (NU) won 289 out of 387 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The NPP won 30 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Prime Minister Vaida-Voevod resigned on October 16, 1932, and Iuliu Maniu formed a government on October 20, 1932. Prime Minister Maniu resigned on January 12, 1933, and Alexandrer Vaida-Voevod formed a government on January 14, 1933. Prime Minister Vaida-Voevod resigned on November 12, 1933, and Ion Duca of the LP formed a government on November 14, 1933. The government dissolved the Iron Guard on December 9, 1933. The LP won a majority of seats in parliamentary elections held on December 20, 1933. Prime Minister Duca was assassinated by a member of the Iron Guard on December 29, 1933. King Carol II appointed Gheorghe Tatarescu of the LP as prime minister on January 3, 1934. The CPR, NPP, Democratic Union (DU), and Union of Hungarian Workers (UHW) established a political coalition on December 6, 1937. Parliamentary elections were held on December 20, 1937, and the LP won 36 percent of the vote. The NPP won 16 percent of the vote, and the National Christian Party (NCP) won nine percent of the vote. Prime Minister Tatarescu resigned on December 26, 1937, and King Carol II appointed Octavian Goga, leader of the NCP, as prime minister on December 28, 1937.

(64-360) Crisis Phase (January 18, 1938-July 26, 1958): King Carol II dissolved the parliament on January 18, 1938, and Prime Minister Goga was forced to resigned on February 10, 1938. A new constitution that confirmed King Carol II’s assumption of dictatorial powers was approved in a national referendum on February 24, 1938. Corneliu Zelea-Codreanu and several members of the Iron Guard were arrested on April 16, 1938, and Corneliu Zelea-Codreanu and 13 members of the Iron Guard were killed by supporters of King Carol II on November 30, 1938. On December 15, 1938, King Carol II established the Front of National Renaissance (FNR) on December 15, 1938. Armand Calinescu was appointed as prime minister on March 6, 1939, but he was assassinated by members of the Iron Guard on September 21, 1939. King Carol II order the killing of some 400 members of the Iron Guard and their families after the assassination of Prime Minister Calinescu. King Carol II appointed General George Argeseanu as interim prime minister on September 22, 1939, and appointed Constantine Argetoianu as prime minister on September 28, 1939. King Carol II dismissed Prime Minister Argetoianu on November 23, 1939, and appointed Gheorghe Tatarescu as prime minister on November 24, 1939. I. Gigurtu formed a government as prime minister on July 4, 1940. Prime Minister Gigurtu resigned as prime minister on September 4, 1940, and General Ion Antonescu formed a government as prime minister of September 6, 1940. King Carol II abdicated in favor of his nineteen year-old son, Prince Michael, on September 6, 1940. Horia Sima, leader of the Iron Guard, was appointed as deputy prime minister on September 14, 1940, and the Iron Guard was declared as the only legal political party in the country. Prime Minister Antonescu allowed some 500,000 German troops to enter the country beginning on October 10, 1940. Some 64 individuals, including former government and political leaders, were killed by members of the Iron Guard in Jilava prison on November 27-28, 1940. Twenty members of the Iron Guard were sentenced to death for killings. Members of the Iron Guard killed some 1,000 Jews on January 21, 1941. Government troops suppressed an attempted rebellion by members of the Iron Guard against the government on January 21-23, 1941, resulting in the deaths of some 21 government soldiers and 375 members of the Iron Guard and civilians. Romania declared war against the US on December 12, 1941. Some 300,000 out of 600,000 Romanian Jews were killed during the Second World War. Prime Minister Antonescu was overthrown by King Michael’s royal guard on August 23, 1944, and King Michael appointed General Constantin Sanatescu as prime minister on August 24, 1944. Romania ceased military operations against the Soviet Union on August 25, 1944, and Soviet troops occupied Bucharest on August 31, 1944 (Soviet troops withdrew from Romania on July 26, 1958). Prime Minister Sanatescu resigned on December 6, 1944, and General Nicolae Radescu formed a government with the communist-controlled National Democratic Front (NDF), which was a political alliance of the LP, CPR, NPP,and the Social Democratic Party (SDP), on December 7, 1944. Rioting broke out in Bucharest on February 24, 1945, and the Soviet Union sent Deputy Foreign Minister Vyshinsky to Bucharest on February 27, 1945. The government of Prime Minister Radescu collapsed on February 28, 1945. On March 1, 1945, Petru Groza formed a communist-dominated government following a Soviet ultimatum to King Michael. Britain and the US provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the government of Prime Minister Groza on February 5, 1946. General Ion Antonescu was convicted and sentenced to death on May 17, 1946. Parliamentary elections were held on November 19, 1946, and the NDF won 348 out of 414 seats in the National Assembly. Opposition political parties, which won a total of 66 seats in the National Assembly, claimed election fraud on November 22, 1946. Julius Maniu announced that the NPP would boycott the parliament. Secretary-of-State Dean Acheson of the US refused to recognize the validity of the elections on November 22, 1946. Petru Groza of the NDF formed a government as prime minister on November 30, 1946. Romania and the Allied powers signed a peace treaty in Paris on February 10, 1947. Julius Maniu, leader of the NPP, was arrested on July 15, 1947, and the NPP was disbanded on July 28, 1947. King Michael abdicated under communist pressure on December 30, 1947, and he departed to Switzerland on January 3, 1948. Parliamentary elections were held on March 28, 1948, and the People’s Democratic Front (PDF) won 91 percent of the vote. A new constitution was approved, and the People’s Republic of Romania was proclaimed on April 13, 1948. A new constitution was approved, and the People’s Republic of Romania was proclaimed on April 13, 1948. In June 1948, the National Assembly approved legislation providing for the nationalization of much of the private sector. Beginning in 1949, some 30,000 Romanian peasants were put on trial for being "class enemies" of the state. Prime Minister Petru Groza was elected president of the National Assembly, and Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej was appointed as prime minister on June 2, 1952. The National Assembly approved a new constitution on September 23, 1952. Parliamentary elections were held on November 30, 1952, and the People’s Democratic Front (PDF) won 98 percent of the vote. Local elections were held on December 20, 1953. Chivu Stoica was appointed as prime minister on October 3, 1955. President Groza died on January 7, 1958, and Ion Gheorghe Mauer was elected president of the National Assembly on January 11, 1958. Soviet troops completed their withdrawal from Romania on July 26, 1958. Some 575,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(64-361) Post-Crisis Phase (July 27, 1958-December 14, 1989): Ion Gheorghe Mauer was appointed as prime minister, and Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej was elected president of the 17-member State Council on March 21, 1961. President Gheorghiu-Dej died on March 19, 1965, and Chivu Stoica was elected president of the State Council on March 24, 1965. Nicolae Ceausescu was elected president of the State Council on December 7, 1967. China agreed to provide economic assistance to the government on March 22, 1971. Nicolae Ceausescu was elected as president of the Socialist Republic of Romania by the National Assembly on March 28, 1974. The National Salvation Front (NSF) called for the removal of Nicolae Ceausescu as general-secretary of the Communist Party of Romania (CPR) in September 1989. Nicolae Ceausescu was re-elected as general-secretary of the CPR on November 24, 1989.

(64-362) Crisis Phase (December 15, 1989-December 8, 1991): Some 100 individuals were killed during anti-government protests by ethnic Hungarians in Timisoara on December 15-17, 1989. Government troops and supporters of the NSF clashed in Bucharest and other cities from December 21-29, 1989. The NSF deposed the government on December 22, 1989. Nicolae and Elena Ceausescu were executed on December 25, 1989. Some 1,035 individuals were killed in political violence on December 15-25, 1989. Ion Iliescu was chosen president by the NSF, and Petre Roman was appointed as prime minister on December 26, 1989. The Provisional Council for National Unity headed by President Iliescu was established on February 1, 1990. Parliamentary elections were held on May 20, 1990, and the NSF won 67 percent of the vote. President Iliescu was re-elected with 85 percent of the vote on May 20, 1990. The National Democratic Institute (NDI) and International Republican Institute (IRI) sent 73 election observers to jointly monitor the presidential and parliamentary elections. The Council of Europe (COE) Parliamentary Assembly sent observers to monitor the elections, and reported that the elections were "generally free, reasonably secret, and relatively fair." The Norwegian Helsinki Committee (NHC) sent observers to monitor the elections. The International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) sent observers to monitor the elections. The government suppressed political demonstrations on June 13-16, 1990. The US imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government on June 15, 1990, and the European Community (EC) imposed economic sanctions (suspension of economic assistance) against the government on June 18, 1990. Four individuals were killed in political violence on September 23-26, 1991. Prime Minister Roman resigned on September 26, 1991, and Theodor Stolojan formed a government as prime minister on October 1, 1991. A new constitution was approved in a referendum on December 8, 1991. Some 1,200 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(64-363) Post-Crisis Phase (December 9, 1991-present): Parliamentary elections were held on September 27, 1992, and the DNSF won 117 out of 341 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. President Iliescu of the Democratic National Salvation Front (DNSF) was re-elected with 61 percent of the vote on October 11, 1992.  The International Federation of Human Rights (IFHR) sent seven observers from France and Romania to monitor the elections.  The COE Parliamentary Assembly sent observers to monitor the elections, and reported that there were a large number of election irregularities and accusations of serious fraud.  The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Parliamentary Assembly (PA) and the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) established an election observation mission to monitor the elections.  The NHC sent observers to monitor the elections.  Nicolae Vacaroiu formed a new government as prime minister on November 13, 1992.  The DNSF joined with two other parties to formed the Social Democratic Party (Partidul Social Democrat-PSD) in July 1993 (Prime Minister Vacaroiu later joined this new coalition).  The COE Parliamentary Assembly began monitoring human rights conditions in the country in October 1993.  Parliamentary elections were held on November 3, 1996, and the CDR won 122 out of 328 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  Emil Constantinescu of the Democratic Convention of Romania (CDR) was elected president with some 54 percent of the vote on November 17, 1996.  The OSCE/ODIHR established an election observation mission consisting of 51 short-term observers from 19 countries headed by Peter Hatch of Britain to monitor the elections from October 6 to November 24, 1996.  The COE Parliamentary Assembly sent four observers to monitor the elections from November 1-4, 1996.  The NHC sent two observers to monitor the elections, and issued a report on November 18, 1996.  Emil Constantinescu was inaugurated as president on November 29, 1996.  Victor Ciorbea of the center-right National Peasants Party (NPP) formed a coalition government as prime minister on December 12, 1996.  The COE Parliamentary Assembly ended its monitoring of human rights conditions in the country on April 24, 1997. Members of the CNSLR-Fratia Union demonstrated against government policies in Bucharest on May 15, 1997.  Some 5,000 individuals demonstrated against government policies in Bucharest in October 22, 1997.  Prime Minister Ciorbea resigned on March 30, 1998, and President Constantinescu appointed Gavril Dejeu of the Christian Democrat Party (CDP) as interim prime minister.  President Constantinescu appointed Radu Vasile of the NPP-CDP as prime minister on April 2, 1998, and Radu Vasile was confirmed by the Chamber of Deputies as prime minister on April 15, 1998.  Government police and miners clashed in Caracal on February 17, 1999, resulting in the death of one individual. President Constantinescu dismissed Prime Minister Vasile on December 13, 1999, and appointed Alexandru Athanasiu as interim prime minister on December 14, 1999.  Ion Iliescu, leader of the PSD, condemned the dismissal of Prime Minister Vasile and called for parliamentary elections. President Constantinescu appointed Mugur Isarescu as prime minister on December 17, 1999.  Parliamentary elections were held on November 26 and December 10, 2000.  Ion Iliescu of the SDPR was elected president with some 67 percent of the vote on December 10, 2000, and he was inaugurated as president on December 20, 2000.  The OSCE/ODIHR sent eleven long-term observers and 42 short-term observers headed by Linda Edgeworth of the US to monitor the elections from November 1 to December 11, 2000.  Adrian Nastase of the PSD formed a government as prime minister on December 28, 2000.  Parliamentary elections were held on November 28, 2004, and the National Union (Uniunea Nationala-UN), which included the PSD, won 132 out of 314 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.  Traian Basescu of the National Liberal Party (Partidul National Liberal-PNL)/Democratic Party (Partidul Democrat-PD) was elected president with 51 percent of the vote in the second round of presidential elections on December 13, 2004.  The OSCE/ODIHR sent 18 observers from 13 countries headed by Stephen Nash of Britain to monitor the parliamentary and presidential elections from November 20 to December 15, 2004.  President Basescu nominated Calin Tariceanu as prime minister on December 22, 2004.

[Sources: Arnold et al., 1991, 279-282; Associated Press (AP), December 14, 1999, December 16, 1999; Banks and Muller, 1998, 756-764; Beigbeder, 1994, 251-253, 281, 290; Brecher and Wilkenfeld, 1997, 600-601; British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), November 29, 2004, December 13, 2004, December 22, 2004; Clodfelter, 1992, 612, 811, 989; Council of Europe (COE) press release, October 31, 1996; Ference, 1994, 301-336; Hitchins 1994; Jessup, 1998, 629-631; Keesing's Record of World Events, July 19-26, 1947, January 3-10, 1948, May 1990, September 1991, September 1992, December 1996, April 1998, December 1999; Langer, 1972, 1026-1028, 1213-1214; Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) newsletter, November 1996; Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Parliamentary Assembly (PA)/Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) press release, November 6, 1996; OSCE/ODIHR statement, November 27, 2000; Otetea 1985; Reuters, December 14, 1999; Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL), November 4, 1996, November 19, 1996, November 29, 1996, April 24, 1997, May 15, 1997, October 23, 1997, March 31, 1998, April 2, 1998, February 17, 1999, December 14, 1999, November 27, 2000, December 11, 2000, December 20, 2000; Roucek 1971; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1932, 608, 1933, 598, 1937 (vol. 1), 624; Watts 1993.]

(65-365) Conflict Phase (January 28, 1918-May 15, 1918): Government troops (White Guards) commanded by General Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim and communist rebels (Red Guards) engaged in military hostilities beginning on January 28, 1918. At the request of the government, some 12,000 German troops intervened in support of the White Guards on April 3, 1918. The White Guards defeated the Red Guards in a battle near Tampere on April 3-6, 1918, resulting in the deaths of 2,000 Red Guards and 600 White Guards. The White Guards defeated the Red Guards in a battle near Viborg on April 30, 1918. The parties agreed to a cessation of military hostilities on May 15, 1918. Some 5,500 Red Guard soldiers and 5,300 White Guard soldiers were killed during the conflict.

(65-366) Post-Conflict Phase (May 16, 1918-October 14, 1920): General Mannerheim became head-of-state on December 11, 1918. German troops withdrew from the country on December 17, 1918. Some 15,000 individuals died during the White Terror between May and December 1918. The Eduskunta approved a constitution on July 17, 1919, and Kaarlo Juho Stahlberg was elected president by the Eduskunta on July 25, 1919. Finnish and Russian representatives signed the Treaty of Dorpat on October 14, 1920, which provided for Russia’s recognition of the independence of Finland. Some 15,000 individuals were killed in political violence between May 1918 and October 1920.

[Sources: Clodfelter, 1992, 618; Hannula 1939; Kirby 1979; Langer, 1972, 1045; Smith 1958; Upton 1980.]

(66-368) Conflict Phase (January 1, 1906-August 23, 1912): The CLA rebelled against the Ottoman government beginning in January 1906. CLA rebels attacked Turkish government police and military targets between March 1906 and July 24, 1908, when the Sultan restored the 1876 constitution and granted autonomy to Albania. Albanian nationalists rebelled against the Ottoman government in Peja, Pristina (vilayet of Kosovo), and the vilayet of Shkoder beginning in March 1910. Some 40,000 Turkish troops commanded by General Shefket Turgut suppressed the rebellion in the vilayet of Kosovo in June 1910 and the vilayet of Shkoder in July 1910. The Ottoman government declared martial law in Albania on July 25, 1910. Albanian nationalists led by Ded Gjo Luli rebelled against the Ottoman government in northern Albania beginning in March 1911. The Ottoman government declared martial law on May 11, 1911. Shevket Turgut Pasha, representing the Ottoman government, announced a general amnesty for Albanian rebels on June 18, 1911, and Albanian nationalist leaders demanded autonomy from the Ottoman government on June 23, 1911. The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire signed an amnesty decree on July 3, 1911, but Albanian rebels refused to surrender to Turkish troops. Ottoman government and Albanian nationalist representatives signed a ceasefire agreement in Podgorica on August 3, 1911. Some 8,000 Turkish government soldiers were killed or wounded during the conflict. Turkish government troops and Albanian rebels resumed military hostilities in Kosovo in April 1912. Turkish troops and Albanian rebels clashed near Prizren on June 18, 1912, resulting in the deaths of some 200 Turkish soldiers. Albanian rebels captured Prishtina on July 22, 1912. Albanian nationalist and Ottoman government representatives held negotiations on August 1-11, 1912, during which the Albanian presented a list of fourteen demands to the Ottoman government on August 9, 1912. Ottoman troops and Albanian rebels resumed military hostilities on August 12, 1912. Turkish troops and Albanian rebels agreed to a cessation of military hostilities on August 23, 1912. Some 5,000 individuals were killed during the conflict.

(66-369) Post-Conflict Phase (August 24, 1912-May 30, 1913): The Ottoman government accepted the demands of the Albanian nationalists on September 4, 1912. Serbian troops and Montenegrin troops laid siege to Shkodra (Scutari) in northern Albania in October 1912. Albanian nationalists led by Ismail Kemal proclaimed the independence of Albania from the Ottoman Empire on November 28, 1912, and Ismail Kemal Bey was elected president of the provisional government of Albania on November 29, 1912. Greek troops occupied southern Albania beginning on December 4, 1912, and President Kemal referred the matter to the Concert of Europe’s Conference of Ambassadors in London on December 5, 1912. The Conference of Ambassadors (Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia) convened in London to discuss the Albanian question beginning on December 17, 1912. The Conference of Ambassadors agreed to recognize Albania as an autonomous state under the authority of the Ottoman Empire on December 20, 1912. Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro opposed the independence of Albania. The Conference of Ambassadors demanded the withdrawal of Serbian and Montenegrin troops from Albania on March 28, 1913, but Montenegro rejected the demand on April 2, 1913. The Conference of Ambassadors deployed naval ships commanded by Vice-Admiral Cecil Burney of Britain in the Adriatic Sea to provide humanitarian relief to Shkodra beginning on April 5, 1913. The Conference of Ambassadors declared a blockade of Montenegrin ports on April 10, 1913. Essad Pasha Toptani surrendered Shkodra to Montenegrin troops on April 22-23, 1913. Essad Pasha Toptani led a rebellion against the provisional government of President Kemal in central Albania beginning on April 22, 1913. King Nicholas of Montenegro agreed to surrender Shkodra to the European powers on May 4, 1913, and Montenegrin troops withdrew from Shkodra on May 14, 1913. The Conference of Ambassadors deployed a peacekeeping force consisting of 382 British troops, 203 French troops, 112 German troops, 581 Austria-Hungarian troops, and 524 Italian troops in Shkodra (Scutari) between May 14, 1913 and August 5, 1914. The Conference of Ambassadors established an temporary administration (five sectors) headed by Colonel George Fraser Phillips of Britain in Shkodra on May 14, 1913. The Ottoman Empire formally relinquish its sovereignty over Albania on May 30, 1913.

[Sources: Clodfelter, 1992, 612; Ference, 1994, 1-60; Jacques 1995; Jessup, 1998, 13-14; Kondis 1976; Pollo and Puto 1981; Schmidl, 1999, 1-10; Skendi 1967; Swire 1971.]

(67-371) Conflict Phase (December 1, 1918-August 25, 1919):  Bolshevik Russian troops invaded Lithuania on December 1, 1918.  Bolsheviks proclaimed the Provisional Lithuanian Government of Workers and Peasants headed by Vincas Mickevicius-Kapsukas on December 8, 1918.  Bolshevik Russia recognized the communist government of Lithuania on December 22, 1918.  On December 20, 1918, Antanas Smetona and Prime Minister Voldemaras went to Germany to request military assistance.  German troops withdrew from Vilnius on December 31, 1918, and Bolshevik Russian troops occupied Vilnius on January 5-6, 1919.  Germany sent some 10,000 German volunteers to Lithuania in January 1919.  Lithuanian troops and Bolshevik Russian troops engaged in military hostilities beginning on February 10, 1919.  Antanas Smetona was elected president by the Lithuanian National Council on April 12, 1919.  Polish troops liberated Vilnius on April 19-20, 1919.  Bolshevik Russian and Lithuanian representatives agreed to a cessation of military hostilities on August 25, 1919.  Some 2,500 Lithuanian soldiers were killed during the conflict.

(67-372) Post-Conflict Phase (August 26, 1919-August 8, 1920):  Lithuanian troops defeated anti-Bolshevik ("White") Russian troops commanded by General Pavel Bermondt-Avalov near Radviliskis on November 21-22, 1919.  Anti-Bolshevik Russian troops withdrew from Lithuania on December 15, 1919.  German troops completed their withdrawal from Klaipeda (Memel) on February 12, 1920, and French troops occupied Klaipeda on February 12, 1920.  Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on April 14-15, 1920, and the Christian Democratic Bloc won 59 out of 112 seats in the assembly.  The Peasant Union (PU) and Socialist Populist Democratic Party (SPDP) coalition won 28 seats in the assembly.  Bolshevik Russian and Lithuanian representatives began negotiations in  Moscow on May 7, 1920.  The Constituent Assembly convened in Kaunas on May 15, 1920, and approved a provisional constitution on June 10, 1920. Casimir Grinius formed a government as prime minister on June 10, 1920.  Poland provide de facto recognition of Lithuania on July 4, 1920.  Lithuanian and Bolshevik Russian representatives signed the Treaty of Moscow on July 12, 1920, which provided for Bolshevik Russian recognition of Lithuanian independence.  Bolshevik Russian troops launched a military offensive against Polish troops in Vilnius in July 1920, resulting in the capture of Vilnius on July 14, 1920.  The Lithuanian parliament ratified the Treaty of Moscow on August 8, 1920.

[Sources: Chase 1946; Gerutis 1969; Langer, 1972, 1040-1041; Page 1959.]

[Sources: Langer, 1972, 1042; Page, 1959; Raun, 1991; Smith, 2002.]

(69-376) Crisis Phase (January 1, 1905-November 18, 1918): Latvian nationalists, particularly members of the Latvian Social Democratic Labour Party (LSDLP), initiated an uprising against the Russian Empire in January 1905.  Russian government police fired on Latvian demonstrators in Riga on January 13, 1905, resulting in the deaths of 70 individuals.  Latvian nationalists destroyed the property of Baltic German landowners in Latvia.  Emperor Nicholas II granted political rights to citizens of the Russian empire on October 22, 1905.  The Russian government imposed martial law in Kurland (southern Latvia) on August 6, 1905 and Livland (northern Latvia) on November 22, 1905.  Some 2,500 Latvians were killed during the revolution of 1905, and several hundred Latvians were executed by the Russian government in 1906.  German troops occupied southwestern Latvia between May 1915 and October 1915.  Emperor Nicholas II abdicated the throne of the Russian empire on March 2, 1917, and the Russian provisional government recognized Latvia's provisional council as the autonomous regional government on July 5, 1917.  Latvian nationalists demanded political autonomy from the Russian provisional government on August 12, 1917.  Elections to the Livonian Provincial Council were held in August 1917, and the Bolsheviks won a majority of the seats on the council.  German troops captured Riga on September 3, 1917.  Bolshevik Russian troops occupied the province of Livonia between November 9 and November 20, 1917.  Latvian nationalists established the Provisional National Council (PNC) on November 16, 1917, and Baltic Germans in Latvia established the Latvian Provisional National Council (LPNC) on November 30, 1917.  Bolsheviks declared an autonomous Latvian Soviet government on December 29, 1917.  German troops occupied the entire territory of Latvia on February 18-22, 1918.  Baltic Germans in Courland declared the independence of the Duchy of Courland on March 8, 1918, and the German Empire recognized the duchy on March 18, 1918.  Meanwhile, Baltic Germans in Livonia, Estonia, Riga, and Osel declared the independence of the Baltic State (Baltischer Staat) on April 12, 1918.  The two German Baltic states merged, and the United Baltic Duchy was recognized by Kaiser Wilhelm II of the German Empire on September 22, 1918.  A regency council for the United Baltic Duchy was established on November 8, 1918 (but the council was dissolved on November 28, 1918).  Britain provided de facto recognition of Latvia's independence from Russia on November 11, 1918.  The Latvian People’s Council (LPC), which was chaired by President Janis Cakste, appointed a provisional government headed by Prime Minister Karlis Ulmanis of the Farmer's Union (FU) on November 17, 1918.  The LPC formally declared the Republic of Latvia's independence from Russia on November 18, 1918.  Some 3,000 individuals were killed, and some 800,000 individuals were displaced during the crisis.

(69-377)  Conflict Phase (November 19, 1918-February 1, 1920):  Bolshevik ("Red") Russian troops invaded Latvia beginning on November 19, 1918.  Germany recognized the de facto independence of the Republic of Latvia on November 25, 1918.  The Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) was declared by Bolsheviks in opposition to the provisional government of the Republic of Latvia on December 17, 1918, and the Soviet Union recognized the LSSR on December 22, 1918.  British naval ships provided military assistance and intervened in support of the government of Prime Minister Ulmanis between December 18, 1918 and January 3, 1919.  The Latvian provisional government appointed Colonel Oskars Kalpaks as commander of the Latvian national army on January 1, 1919.  Bolshevik Russian troops captured Valka in northern Latvia on December 18, 1918, and captured Riga on January 3-4, 1919.  Bolshevik Russian troops killed thousands of Latvians ("Red Terror") between January and May 1919.  The Bolshevik Russians established a communist government in Latvia headed by Peteris Stucka on January 15, 1919.  Estonia troops intervened in support of the Latvians, and liberated Valka from Bolshevik Russian troops on February 1, 1919.  General Rudiger von der Goltz arrived in Latvia to assume command of some 9,000 German troops in the 6th German Rerserve Corps, including several Freikorps units commanded by Major Josef Bischoff, and the 1st Reserve Guard Division in Latvia on February 1, 1919.  Britain provided military assistance (5,000 rifles and 50 automatic rifles) to the Latvian national army on February 9, 1919.  German troops commanded by General Goltz and Baltic German militia (Baltische Landeswehr) commanded by Major Alfred Fletcher, as well as Latvian nationalist troops, launched a military offensive against Bolshevik Russian troops in Latvia on February 12, 1919.  Colonel Oskars Kalpaks was killed near Zirni on March 6, 1919.  German troops and Latvian nationalist troops re-captured Tukums on March 15, 1919.  General Goltz and German (Landeswehr) troops overthrew the provisional government of Prime Minister Ulmanis on April 16, 1919, and established a German "puppet" government headed by Prime Minister Andrievs Niedra on April 26, 1919.  German (Landeswehr) troops liberated Riga from Bolshevik Russian troops on May 22-23, 1919.  German troops killed some 3,600 Latvians in Riga and other cities throughout Latvia ("White Terror") beginning on May 23, 1919.  Latvian nationalist troops and Estonia troops commanded by General Andres Podder captured Cesis on May 30, 1919.  German (Landeswehr) troops attacked Latvian nationalist troops and Estonian troops near Cesis beginning on June 5, 1919.  Lt. Colonel Warwick Greene of the US mediated a ceasefire agreement between the German troops and Latvian nationalist troops on June 10, 1919.  German (Landeswehr) troops resumed their attack against Latvian nationalist troops and Estonians troops near Cesis on June 19, 1919.  Latvian nationalist troops and Estonian troops defeated the German troops on June 23, 1919.  Latvian nationalists and German troops agreed to a ceasefire mediated by the Allied Powers (Britain, France, Italy, and the US) on July 3, 1919, and Latvian nationalist troops entered Riga on July 4, 1919.  The government of Prime Minister Ulmanis returned to Riga on July 8, 1919, and the Landeswehr was integrated into the Latvian national army in July 1919.  On September 25, 1919, the German government announced that General Goltz would be replaced by General Walther von Eberhardt, who arrived in Latvia on October 3, 1919.  Anti-Bolshevik ("White") Russian troops, known as the West Russian Army, commanded by General Pavel Bermondt-Avalov attacked Latvian nationalist troops near Riga on October 8, 1919.  The West Russian Army included several former German ("Iron Division") troops.  British and French naval ships commanded by Admiral Sir Walter Cowan intervened in support of Latvian nationalists by blockading German shipping in the Baltic Sea beginning on October 10, 1919, and Estonia provided military assistance to the Latvian nationalists.  Latvian nationalist troops counter-attacked the anti-Bolshevik Russian troops on October 11, 1919.  British and French naval ships bombarded the German troops on October 15, 1919.  Latvian nationalist troops largely defeated the anti-Bolshevik Russian troops near Riga on November 10-11, 1919, and General Bermondt-Avalov resigned as commander of the West Russian Army on November 16, 1919.  Anti-Bolshevik Russian troops completed their withdrawal from Latvia on November 29, 1919, and German (Freikorps) troops commanded by General Walther von Eberhardt completed their withdrawal from Latvia on December 13, 1919.  Latvian nationalist troops launched a military offensive against the remaining Bolshevik Russian troops in Latvia on January 3, 1920, and the Latvian troops captured Rezekne on January 21, 1920.  Latvian and Bolshevik Russian representatives signed a ceasefire agreement on February 1, 1920.

(69-378) Post-Conflict Phase (February 2, 1920-August 11, 1920): Elections for the Constitutional Assembly (Satversme) were held on April 17-18, 1920.  France granted de facto recogition of Latvia's independence from Russia on April 28, 1920.  The 150-member Constituent Assembly convened and adopted a constitution on May 1, 1920, and Janis Cakste was elected president by the Constituent Assembly.  Latvian and Bolshevik Russian representatives signed the Treaty of Riga on August 11, 1920, which provided for Bolshevik Russian recognition of Latvian independence.

[Sources: Bilmanis 1951; Langer, 1972, 1041-1042; Laserson, 1943, 233-247; Pabriks and Purs, 2002; Page 1959, Rauch 1974; Raun, 1984, 453-467.]

(70-380) Post-Crisis Phase (August 25, 1911-May 13, 1915): France provided diplomatic assistance (diplomatic recognition) to the republican government on August 25, 1911. Joao Pinheiro Chagas formed a government as prime minister on September 3, 1911. Prime Minister Chagas resigned on November 7, 1911. Prime Minister Augusto de Vasconcelos resigned on July 4, 1912, and Duarte Leite formed a coalition government as prime minister on July 16, 1912. Prime Minister Leite resigned on January 8, 1913, and Afonso Costa of the PRP formed a government as prime minister on January 9, 1913. Prime Minister Costa resigned on January 24, 1914, and Bernardino Machado formed a government as prime minister. Prime Minister Machado resigned, and Vitor Hugo de Azevedo Coutinho formed a government as prime minister on December 12, 1914. Prime Minister Azevedo Coutinho resigned on January 25, 1915, and General Joaquim Pimenta de Castro tool control of the government on January 26, 1915.

(70-381) Crisis Phase (May 14, 1915-August 5, 1919): General Pimenta de Castro was overthrown during a military rebellion on May 14-18, 1915, and Joao Pinheiro Chagas formed a government as prime minister on May 17, 1915. Some 300 individuals were killed during the rebellion. President Arriaga resigned on May 25, 1915, and Theophilo Braga assumed the presidency on May 26, 1915. Parliamentary elections were held on June 13, 1915, and the PRP won 106 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Bernardino Machado was elected president on October 5, 1915, and Afonso Costa of the PRP formed a government on November 29, 1915. The government seized 36 German ships in Portuguese ports on February 24, 1916, and Germany declared war against Portugal on March 9, 1916. Government troops suppressed riots in Lisbon on May 12-22, 1917, resulting in the deaths of some 200 individuals. President Machado and Prime Minister Costa were overthrown during a military rebellion led by Major Sidonio Pais on December 5-8, 1917. Some 350 individuals were killed during the rebellion. The Revolutionary Junta (Junta Revolutionaria - JR) headed by Sidonio Pais took control of the government and established the New Republic on December 10, 1917. Parliamentary elections were held in April 1918, and the Republican National Party (Partido Nacional Republicano - PNR) won 108 out of 155 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The Monarchists won 37 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Sidonio Pais was elected president without opposition, and he was inaugurated as president on May 9, 1918. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion in Lisbon and Oporto on October 13-14, 1918. Government police killed seven political prisoners in Lisbon on October 16, 1918. President Pais survived an attempted assassination in Lisbon on December 5, 1918, but he was assassinated in Lisbon on December 14, 1918. Admiral Joao do Canto e Castro was elected president by the Congress, and Joao Tamagnini Barbosa formed a government as prime minister. Government troops suppressed a royalist rebellion in Lisbon and Oporto between January 19 and February 13, 1919. Some 150 individuals were killed during the rebellion. Prime Minister Tamagnini Barbosa resigned on January 27, 1919, and Jose Relvas formed a coalition government as prime minister on January 28, 1919. Parliamentary elections were held in June 1919, and the PRP won 122 out of 234 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Antonio Jose de Almeida was elected president by the Congress on August 5, 1919. Some 1,500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(70-382) Post-Crisis Phase (August 6, 1919-May 20, 1921): Colonel Antonio Maria Baptista formed a government as prime minister on March 8, 1920, but he died on June 6, 1920. Portugal joined the League of Nations (LON) on April 8, 1920. Colonel Liberato Damiao Ribeiro Pinto formed a government as prime minister on November 30, 1920. Prime Minister Ribeiro Pinto resigned on March 2, 1921, and Bernardino Machado formed a coalition government as prime minister on March 3, 1921.

(70-383) Crisis Phase (May 21, 1921-December 16, 1925): Prime Minister Machado was overthrown during a military rebellion in Lisbon on May 21, 1921. Tome de Barros Queiros formed a government as prime minister on May 22, 1921. President Almeida dissolved Congress on June 1, 1921. Parliamentary elections were held in June 1921, and the Liberal Party (LP) won 48 percent of the vote. Antonio Granjo of the LP formed a government on August 30, 1921. Prime Minister Granjo and five other individuals were killed during a military rebellion led by Manuel Maria Coelho on October 19, 1921. President Almeida appointed Manuel Maria Coelho as prime minister on October 20, 1921, and appointed Carlos Maria Pinto as prime minister on November 4, 1921. Parliamentary elections were held in January 1922, and the PRP won 111 out of 226 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Antonio Maria da Silva of the PRP formed a government as prime minister on February 5, 1922. Manuel Teixeira Gomes was elected president by the Congress on August 6, 1923. Prime Minister Silva resigned on November 15, 1923. The government suppressed a military rebellion on December 10, 1923. Prime Minister Ginestral Machado resigned on December 15, 1923, and Alvaro de Castro formed a government as prime minister on December 18, 1923. The government suppressed several communist rebellions between August 11 and September 13, 1924. Major Vitorino Guimarais of the PRP formed a government as prime minister in February 1925. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion on March 5, 1925. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Comandante Filomeno da Camara, General Sinel de Cordes, and Lt. Colonel Raul Esteves in Lisbon on April 18-19, 1925. Prime Minister Guimarais resigned on June 30, 1925, and Antonio Maria da Silva of the PRP formed a government as prime minister on July 1, 1925. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Captain Jose Mendes Cabecadas near Lisbon on July 19, 1925. Pirme Minister Silva resigned on August 1, 1925. Parliamentary elections were held in November 1925, and the PRP won 80 out of 156 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. President Teixeira Gomes resigned on December 10, 1925, and Bernardino Machado was elected president by the Congress on December 16, 1925. Some 1,000 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(70-384) Post-Crisis Phase (December 17, 1925-May 27, 1926): Prime Minister Domingos Pereira resigned on December 16, 1925, and Antonio Maria da Silva of the PRP formed a government as prime minister on December 17, 1925.

(70-385) Crisis Phase (May 28, 1926-April 11, 1933): Prime Minister Silva was overthrown in a military rebellion led by General Gomes da Costa on May 28-30, 1926. President Machado resigned on May 30, 1926, and General Costa took control of the government on June 1, 1926. General Antonio Oscar de Fragoso Carmona seized control of the government on July 9, 1926. The government suppressed rebellions in Oporto and Lisbon led by General Sousa Dias on February 2-13, 1927, resulting in the deaths of some 120 individuals. General Carmona was elected president without opposition in a plebiscite on March 25, 1928, and President Carmona appointed Antonio de Oliveira Salazar as finance minister on April 27, 1928. General Domingos de Oliveira formed a government as prime minister on January 21, 1930. Antonio de Oliveira Salazar established the National Union (Uniao Nacional -UN) on July 30, 1930. Government troops suppressed an attempted rebellion in Lisbon on August 26, 1931. Prime Minister Oliveira resigned on July 4, 1932, and Antonio de Oliveira Salazar formed a government as prime minister on July 5, 1932. The government adopted a new constitution on February 22, 1933, and the constitution was approved in a plebiscite on March 19, 1933. The constitution went into effect on April 11, 1933. Some 500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(70-387) Crisis Phase (January 18, 1934-September 29, 1968): The government headed by Prime Minister Antonio de Oliveira Salazar suppressed an attempted communist rebellion in Marinha Grande on January 18, 1934, resulting in the arrest of some 350 individuals. Parliamentary elections were held on December 16, 1934, and the National Assembly convened in Lisbon on January 10, 1935. President Antonio de Fragoso Carmona was re-elected without opposition on February 17, 1935. The government suppressed an attempted naval rebellion on September 9, 1936. Prime Minister Salazar survived an attempted assassination on July 4, 1937. President Carmona was re-elected in 1942. Prime Minister Salazar permitted the formation of opposition political parties on October 7, 1945. Parliamentary elections were held on November 18, 1945, and the National Union (Uniao Nacional - UN) headed by Prime Minister Salazar won a majority of the seats in the parliament. Opposition political parties boycotted the parliamentary elections. The government suppressed a military rebellion on October 10, 1946. The government suppressed a rebellion in May 1947. President Carmona was re-elected without opposition on February 13, 1949. President Carmona died on April 18, 1951. General Francisco Lopes was elected president without opposition on July 22, 1951. Admiral Americo Deus Tomas of the UN was elected president with 77 percent of the vote on June 8, 1958, and he was inaugurated as president on August 9, 1958. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by Captain Joao Varela Gomes on January 1, 1962, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. Government troops and demonstrators clashed in Lisbon and Oporto on May 1, 1962, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. The Social-Democratic Action Movement (Accao Democrato Social - ADS) was established by Francisco da Cunha Leal and Mario de Azevedo Gomes in opposition to the government in August 1963. Parliamentary elections were held on November 7, 1965. The ADS and other opposition political parties boycotted the parliamentary elections. Prime Minister Salazar was incapacitated by a stroke on September 16, 1968, and Marcello Caetano formed a government as prime minister on September 29, 1968. Some 100 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(70-388) Post-Crisis Phase (September 30, 1968-April 24, 1974): Former Prime Minister Salazar died on July 27, 1970. The UN changed its name to the National Popular Action (NPA) on February 20, 1970. Government police arrested several political opponents of the government in Lisbon and Oporto on April 18-21, 1974.

(70-389) Crisis Phase (April 25, 1974-April 25, 1976): The government was overthrown by members of the Movement of the Armed Forces (MAF) on April 25, 1974, and the seven-member Junta of National Salvation (JNS) took control of the government on April 26, 1974. Some ten individuals were killed during the military coup. General Antonio de Spinola was named as provisional president by the JNS on May 15, 1974. Adelino da Palma Carlos formed a center-left coalition government as prime minister on May 16, 1974. General Spinola resigned as provisional president on September 30, 1974, and General Francisco de Costa Gomez was named as provisional president on October 1, 1974. Government police clashed with demonstrators in Setubal on March 7, 1975, resulting in the deaths of three individuals. Government troops suppressed a military rebellion led by supporters of former President Antonio de Spinola on March 11, 1975, resulting in the death of one individual. Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held on April 25, 1975, and the Portuguese Socialist Party (PSP) won 115 out of 247 seats. The Popular Democratic Party (PDP) won 80 seats in the Constituent Assembly, and the Communist Party of Portugal (CPP) won 30 seats in the Constituent Assembly. The MAF took control of the government on July 17, 1975. General Vasco Goncalves resigned as prime minister on September 6, 1975, and Vice Admiral Jose Pinheiro de Azevedo form a government as prime minister on September 19, 1975. Government troops suppressed a left-wing military rebellion near Lisbon on November 25-28, 1975, resulting in the deaths of nine individuals. A new constitution went into effect on April 25, 1976.

(70-390) Post-Crisis Phase (April 26, 1976-July 23, 1976): Parliamentary elections were held on April 25, 1976, and the PSP won 107 out of 263 seats in the Legislative Assembly. The PDP won 73 seats in the Legislative Assembly. Four individuals were killed in election-related violence in Vila Real and Lisbon on April 13-22, 1976. General Antonio dos Santos Ramalho Eanes was elected president with 62 percent of the vote on June 27, 1976, and he was inaugurated as president on July 14, 1976. Mario Soares of the PSP formed a government as prime minister on July 23, 1976.

[Sources: Clodfelter, 1992, 587-588; Facts on File, January 1-10, 1962, May 3-9, 1962, April 27, 1974, March 15, 1975, May 3, 1975, September 13, 1975, September 27, 1975, December 6, 1975, July 3, 1976: Foreign Relations of the US (FRUS), 1908, 686-692, 1910, 825-828; Jessup, 1998, 596-599; Keesing's Record of World Events, September 6-13, 1958, November 27-December 4, 1965, February 5-12, 1972, May 20-26, 1974, November 4-10, 1974, April 21-27, 1975, June 2-8, 1975, June 25, 1976, July 31, 1976, September 17, 1976; Langer, 1972, 698-699, 995-996, 1186-1187; Livermore, 1947, 441-464; Livermore, 1967, 306-345; Robinson, 1979, 32-82; Survey of International Affairs (SIA), 1925 (supplement), 209; Wheeler 1978.]

(71-392) Crisis Phase (December 28, 1919-February 28, 1927): The CPB organized a general strike between December 28, 1919 and January 5, 1920, resulting in a declaration of martial law and the arrest of hundreds of communists. Parliamentary elections were held on March 28, 1920, and the BANU won 110 out of 229 seats in the Sobranje. The CPB won 51 seats in the Sobranje. Bulgaria was admitted to the League of Nations (LON) on December 16, 1920. Parliamentary elections were held in April 1923, and the BANU won 212 out of 229 seats in the Sobranje. The CPB won 16 seats in the Sobranje. Prime Minister Stamboliyski was killed during a rebellion led by members of the Military League (ML) and National Alliance (NA) on June 8-14, 1923. Alexander Zankov, leader of the NA, formed a right-wing government as prime minister on June 10, 1923. The government banned the BANU, and some 3,000 supporters of the BANU were detained. Communists led by Georgi Dimitrov and Vasiliy Petrov rebelled against the government on September 26-28, 1923, resulting in the deaths of some 5,000 individuals. Parliamentary elections were held on November 18, 1923, and NA candidates won 185 out of 247 seats in the Sobranje. The government banned the CPB on April 1, 1924. Todor Alexandrov, a Macedonian leader, was assassinated on August 31, 1924. Some 200 individuals were killed in political assassinations in 1924. King Boris III survived an attempted assassination on April 14, 1925, resulting in the deaths of two individuals. Some 150 individuals were killed in a terrorist bombing of the Sveta Nedelya Cathedral in Sofia on April 16, 1925. The government declared martial law, and detained some 6,000 individuals. Prime Minister Zankov resigned on January 3, 1926, and Andrei Liapchev formed a government on January 4, 1926. Prime Minister Liapchev legalized the communist Bulgarian Worker’s Party (BWP) in February 1927. Some 5,500 individuals were killed during the crisis.

(71-393) Post-Crisis Phase (March 1, 1927-June 23, 1933): Parliamentary elections were held on May 29, 1927. Parliamentary elections were held on June 21, 1931, and the Popular Bloc (PB), which included the Democratic Party (DP), won 150 out of 229 seats in the Sobranje. The Democratic Alliance (DA) won 78 seats in the Sobranje. Alexander Malinov, leader of the DP, formed a government as prime minister on June 29, 1931. Prime Minister Malinov was succeeded by Nikola Mushanov of the DP on October 12, 1931.

(71-394) Crisis Phase (June 24, 1933-April 17, 1956): The government arrested some one thousand communists and Macedonians on June 24, 1933. Prime Minister Mushanov was deposed in a military rebellion led by Colonel Kimon Georgiev and Colonel Damian Velchev on May 19, 1934. Colonel Georgiev resigned as prime minister on January 22, 1935, and King Boris III appointed General Petko Zlatev as prime minister. King Boris III dismissed Prime Minister Zlatev on April 18, 1935, and appointed Andrei Tochev as prime minister on April 21, 1935. King Boris III issued a manifesto on April 21, 1935, announcing the reestablishment of his authority. On October 2, 1935, the government declared martial law after uncovering a conspiracy to overthrow the government. King Boris III appointed Georgi Kioseivanov as prime minister on November 23, 1935. Parliamentary elections were held in March 1938, and the People’s Constitutional Bloc (PCB) won 60 out of 160 seats in the Sobranje. The Sobranje convened on May 22, 1938. King Boris III announced Bulgaria’s neutrality in the European conflict on September 16, 1939. Parliamentary elections were held between December 1939 and January 1940. King Boris III dismissed Prime Minister Kioseivanov on February 15, 1940, and appointed Bogdan Filov as prime minister. German troops entered Bulgaria on February 12, 1941, and student demonstrations against the German troops began on February 22, 1941. Prime Minister Filov signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany on March 1, 1941, and Bulgarian troops attacked Yugoslavia on April 6, 1941. The government declared martial law on September 20, 1941, and eleven communists were sentenced to death on October 14, 1941. Bulgaria declared war against the US and Britain on December 13, 1941. Eleven communists were sentenced to death on December 15, 1941. Some 14,000 out of 64,000 Bulgarian Jews were killed during the Second World War (King Boris resisted German pressure to deport some 50,000 Jews living in Bulgaria proper to concentration camps in eastern Europe). The communist Fatherland Front (FF) was established in opposition to the government in June 1942. King Boris III died in Sofia on August 28, 1943, and six-year old Prince Symeon assumed the throne on August 29, 1943 (a council of regents headed by Prince Kiril, brother of former King Boris, was appointed to rule on behalf of King Symeon II on September 14, 19