Cyborgs and Space
By Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline
(Reprinted from Astronautics, September 1960) Altering
man's bodily functions to meet the requirements of extraterrestrial environments
would be more logical than providing an earthly environment for him in space Space travel challenges
mankind not only technologically but also spiritually, in that it invites man
to take an active part in his own biological evolution. Scientific advances
of the future may thus be utilized to permit man's existence in environments
which differ radically from those provided by nature as we know it. The task of adapting
man's body to any environment he may choose will be made easier by increased
knowledge of homeostatic functioning, the cybernetic aspects of which are
just beginning to be understood and investigated. In the past evolution
brought about the altering of bodily functions to suit different
environments. Starting as of now, it will be possible to achieve this to some
degree without alteration of heredity by suitable biochemical,
physiological, and electronic modifications of man's existing modus vivendi.
Homeostatic mechanisms found in organisms are designed to provide stable
operation in the particular environment of the organism. Examples of three
successful alternate solutions provided by biological mechanisms to the body-environment
problem with regard to operating temperature are man, hibernating animals,
and poikilothermic fish (organisms with blood that take on the temperature of
the environment). Various biological
solutions have also been developed for another problem-respiration. Mammals,
fish, insects, and plants each have a different solution with inherent
limitations but eminently suitable for their field of operation.
Should an organism desire to live outside this field, an apparently
"insurmountable" problem exists. However, is the problem
really insurmountable? If a fish wished to live on land, it could not readily
do so. If, however, a particularly intelligent and resourceful fish could be
found, who had studied a good deal of biochemistry and physiology, was a
master engineer and cyberneticist, and had excellent lab facilities available
to him, this fish could conceivably have the ability to design an instrument
which would allow him to live on land and breathe air quite readily. In the same manner, it is
becoming apparent that we will in the not too distant future have sufficient
knowledge to design instrumental control systems which will make it possible
for our bodies to do things which are no less difficult. The environment with
which man is now concerned is that of space. Biologically, what are the
changes necessary to allow man to live adequately in the space environment?
Artificial atmospheres encapsulated in some sort of enclosure constitute only
temporizing, and dangerous temporizing at that, since we place ourselves in
the same position as a fish taking a small quantity of water along with him
to live on land. The bubble all too easily bursts. The biological problems
which exist in space travel are many and varied. Long-term space voyages,
involving flights not of days, months or years, but possibly of several
thousand years, will eventually be hard realities, and resultant
physiological and psychological conditions must be considered. These are reviewed below.
In some cases, we have proposed solutions which probably could be devised
with presently available knowledge and techniques. Other solutions are
projections into the future which by their very nature must resemble science
fiction. To illustrate, there may be much more efficient ways of carrying out
the functions of the respiratory system than by breathing, which becomes
cumbersome in space. One proposed solution for the not too distant future is
relatively simple: Don't breathe! If man attempts partial
adaptation to space conditions, instead of insisting on carrying his whole
environment along with him, a number of new possibilities appear. One is then
led to think about the incorporation of integral exogenous devices to bring
about the biological changes which might be necessary in man's homeostatic
mechanisms to allow him to live in space qua natura. The autonomic
nervous system and endocrine glands cooperate in man to maintain the multiple
balances required for his existence. They do this without conscious control,
although they are amenable to such influence. Necessary readjustments of
these automatic responses under extraterrestrial conditions require the aid
of control theory, as well as extensive physiological knowledge. Cyborg - Frees Man to
Explore What are some of the devices
necessary for creating self-regulating man-machine systems? This
self-regulation must function without the benefit of consciousness in order
to cooperate with the body's own autonomous homeostatic controls. For the
exogenously extended organizational complex functioning as an integrated
homeostatic system unconsciously, we propose the term "Cyborg." The
Cyborg deliberately incorporates exogenous components extending the
self-regulatory control function of the organism in order to adapt it to new
environments. If man in space, in
addition to flying his vehicle, must continually be checking on things and
making adjustments merely in order to keep himself alive, he becomes a slave
to the machine. The purpose of the Cyborg, as well as his own homeostatic
systems, is to provide an organizational system in which such robot-like
problems are taken care of automatically and unconsciously, leaving man free
to explore, to create, to think, and to feel. One device helpful to
consideration of the construction of Cyborgs, which is already available, is
the ingenious osmotic pressure pump capsule developed by S. Rose for
continuous slow injections of biochemically active substances at a biological
rate. The capsule is incorporated into the organism and allows administration
of a selected drug at a particular organ and at a continuous variable rate,
without any attention on the part of the organism. Capsules are already
available which will deliver as little as 0.01 ml/day for 200 days, and there
is no reason why this time could not be extended considerably. The apparatus
has already been used on rabbits and rats, and for continuous heparin
injection in man. No untoward general effect on health was noted when the
injector was buried in animals. As long as five years ago, an injector 7 cm
long and 1.4 cm in diameter, weighing 15 gm, was successfully buried under
the skin of rats weighing 150-250 gin. The photo on page 27 shows a rat
weighing 220 gm with an injector in situ. The combination of an
osmotic pressure pump capsule with sensing and controlling mechanisms can
form a continuous control loop which will act as an adjunct to the body's own
autonomous controls. In this manner, these controls can be changed to the
desired performance characteristics under various environmental conditions.
If these characteristics were determined, such a system would be possible
today with the selection of appropriate drugs. For example, systolic
blood pressure may be sensed, compared to a reference value based on the
space conditions encountered, and regulated by letting the difference between
sensed and reference pressures control administration of an adrenergic or
vasodilator drug. Of course, any such system presupposes that we would be
cognizant of what optimum blood pressure would be under various space
conditions. While it is quite
difficult to set up per limits to "natural,, human physiological and
psychological performance, we can take as minimal the capabilities
demonstrated under control conditions such as yoga or hypnosis. The
imagination is stretched by the muscular control of which even the
undergraduate at a Yoga College is capable, and hypnosis per se may prove to
have a definite place in space travel, although there is much to be learned
about the phenomena of disassociation, generalization of instructions, and
abdication of executive control. We are now working on a
new preparation which may greatly enhance hypnotizability, so that
pharmacological and hypnotic approaches may be symbiotically combined. Psycho-Physiological
Problems Let us now turn our
attention to some of the special physiological and psychological problems
involved in space travel, and see how Cyborg dynamics may help achieve better
understanding and utilization of man's natural abilities. Wakefulness. For flights of relatively short
or moderate durations few weeks or even a few months-it would appear
desirable to keep the astronaut continuously awake and fully alert. The
extension of normal functioning through the use of that group of drugs known
as psychic energizers, with adjunctive medication, for this purpose is a
present-day reality. In flights lasting a month or two, no more than a few
hours a day of sleep would be required in the normal environment if such
drugs were employed. Tests indicate efficiency tends to increase, rather than
decrease, under such a regime, and extended usage appears entirely feasible. Radiation Effects. One subsystem of the Cyborg would
involve a sensor to detect radiation levels and an adaptation of the Rose
osmotic pump which would automatically inject protective pharmaceuticals in
appropriate doses. Experiments at the AF School of Aviation Medicine already
indicate an increase in radiation resistance resulting from combined
administration of aminoethylisothioronium and cysteine to monkeys. Metabolic Problems and
Hypothermic Controls. In the case of prolonged space flight, the estimated consumption of
10 lb a day for human fuel -- 2 lb of oxygen, 4 lb of fluid, and 4 lb of food
-- poses a major problem. During a flight of a year Or longer, assuming that
the vehicle was operating satisfactorily, there would be little or no reason
for the astronaut to be awake for long periods unless some emergency arose.
Hypothermia (reduction of body temperature) would appear to be a desirable
state in such long voyages in order to reduce metabolism, and thus human
"fuel" consumption. The use of external cooling, reduction of the
temperature of the blood in an arterio-venous shunt, and hibernation (through
pituitary control), alone or in combination with pharmaceuticals, all seem to
offer possibilities in attempting to obtain and maintain such a state.
Control of the temperature by influencing the heat-regulating center would be
more desirable than changing the reference level. Oxygenization and
Carbon Dioxide Removal. Breathing in space is a problem because the apace environment will
not provide the necessary oxygen, and respiration eliminates needed carbon
dioxide and involves heat and water losses. An inverse fuel cell, capable of
reducing C02 to its components with removal of the carbon and recirculation
of the oxygen, would eliminate the necessity for lung breathing. Such a
system, operating either on solar or nuclear energy, would replace the lung,
making breathing, as we know it, unnecessary. Conventional breathing would
still be possible, should the environment permit it, discontinuing the
fuel-cell operation. Fluid Intake and
Output. Fluid
balance in the astronaut could be largely maintained via a shunt from the
ureters to the venous circulation after removal or conversion of noxious
substances. Sterilization of the gastrointestinal tract, plus intravenous or
direct intragastric feeding, could reduce fecal elimination to a minimum, and
even this might be reutilized. Enzyme Systems. Under conditions of lowered body
temperature, certain enzyme systems would tend to remain more active than
others. The extent to which pharmaceutical or chemical agents could influence
this enzyme activity has not been systematically investigated, but beyond
question they will play an important role. Since metabolism is subject to
enzyme control, several intriguing possibilities exist. For example, it may
be possible through in vitro radiation to convert certain organisms from
aerobic to anaerobic states and, by studying changes in the enzyme systems,
to adapt them for eventual human use. In the same manner, selected
atmospheres of other types could be investigated. Vestibular Function. Disorientation or discomfort
resulting from disturbed vestibular function due to weightlessness might be
handled through the use of drugs, by temporarily draining off the
endolymphatic fluid or, alternately, filling the cavities completely, and
other techniques involving chemical control. Hypnosis may also be useful for
controlling vestibular function. Cardiovascular
Control. The
application of control-system theory to biology has already yielded
sufficiently fruitful results in studies of the multiple homeostatic
functions of the cardiovascular system to indicate the possibility of
altering the system by the Cyborg technique. Administration of presently
available drugs, such as epinephrine, reserpine, digitalis, amphetamine,
etc., by means of Rose injectors, offers one possibility of changing the
cardiovascular functions so as to fit them for a particular environment.
Alteration of the specific homeostatic references within or outside the
brain, and electric stimulation, either as a means of regulating heart rate
or affecting selected brain centers in order to control cardiovascular
functioning, are other possibilities. Muscular Maintenance. Prolonged steep or limited
activity has a deleterious effect on muscle tone. While reduction of body
temperature and metabolism may reduce the magnitude of the problem, further
investigation of the chemical reasons for atrophy appears necessary to
develop adequate pharmaceutical protection to help maintain muscle tone on
prolonged space voyages. Perceptual Problems. Lack of atmosphere will create
markedly different conditions of visual perception than those with which we
are familiar. Attention should be given to providing a medium which would
recreate some of the distortions to which we are accustomed, and to which the
astronaut could become acclimated before takeoff. Part of the problem would
come from searching for an adequate frame of reference, and in this regard
the factors which influence autokinesis (and illusory movement) may have an
influence on space perception problems. Investigation of whether
pharmaceuticals would influence autokinesis is therefore desirable. Pressure. Under pressure lower than 60 mm
Hg, man's blood begins to boil at his normal body temperature. Therefore, if
he is to venture out of his space vehicle without a pressure suit, some means
must be found of reducing his normal operating temperature to a point where
the vapor pressure of his fluids is no greater than the internal tissue
pressures. This is another reason why lowering of body temperature is
essential to avoid the use of constricting pressure suits. Variations in External
Temperature.
While man will require the protection of a space ship or station at the real
extremes of temperature, there are also likely to be intermediate conditions
within or close to the limits of human tolerance. By controlling reflection
and absorption by means of protective plastic sponge clothing plus chemicals
already in existence which produce changes in pigmentation and provide
effective protection against actinic rays, it should be possible to maintain
desired body temperature. Needed is a light-sensitive, chemically regulated
system which would adjust to its own reflectance so as to maintain the
temperature desired. Gravitation. A change in the ratio of gravity
and inertia forces to molecular forces will alter mobility patterns, among
other things. Body temperature control and other uses of pharmaceuticals
could possibly improve functioning under conditions of greater or lesser
gravitation than that on earth. Magnetic Fields. Chemicals and temperature
alteration might also act to retard or facilitate the specific effects of
magnetic fields in space. Sensory Invariance and
Action Deprivation.
Instead of sensory deprivation, it is sensory invariance, or lack of change
in sensory stimuli, which may be the astronaut's bugaboo. In most of the
sensory deprivation experiments to date, it has been sensory invariance which
has produced discomfort and, in extreme circumstances, led to the occurrence
of psychotic-like states. Of even greater significance may be action '
invariance, deprivation or limitation, since in many such experiments
subjects have mentioned a "desire for action." The structuring of
situations so that action has a meaningful sensory feedback should reduce
these difficulties. Here again drugs could play a useful role in reducing
resultant tensions. Action without demonstration that such behavior is
purposeful or sensory stimuli without opportunity for appropriate response
are both highly disturbing. Psychoses. Despite all the care exercised,
there remains a strong possibility that somewhere in the course of a long
space voyage a psychotic episode might occur, and this is one condition for
which no servomechanism can be completely designed at the present time. While
an emergency osmotic pump containing one of the high-potency phenothiazines
together with reserpine could be a part of the complete space man's kit, the
frequent denial by an individual undergoing a psychotic episode that his
thought processes, emotions, or behavior are abnormal, might keep him from
voluntarily accepting medication. For this reason, if monitoring is adequate,
provision should be made for triggering administration of the medication
remotely from earth or by a companion if there is a crew on the vehicle. Limbo. The contingency of possible extreme
pain or suffering as a result of unforeseen accidents must also be
considered. The astronaut should therefore be able to elect a state of
unconsciousness if he feels it to be necessary. Prolonged sleep induced
either pharmacologically or electronically seems the best solution. Other Problems There obviously exists an
equally large number of medical problems amenable to pharmacological
influence which have not been discussed here for lack of space. Among these
are such conditions as nausea, vertigo, motion sickness, erotic requirements,
vibration tolerance, etc. However, those selected
for discussion offer an indication as to what the Cyborg can mean in terms of
space travel. Although some of the proposed solutions may appear fanciful, it
should be noted that there are references in the Soviet technical literature
to research in many of these same areas. Thus we find the Russians proposing
prior oxygen saturation as a solution to the problem of respiration during
the first few minutes after space vehicle launchings; reporting on
alterations of the vestibular function both by drugs and surgery; studying
perception and carrying out research on the laws of eye motion in vision;
finding that lowering of temperature can aid in solving pressure problems,
etc. Solving the many technological problems involved in manned
space flight by adapting man to his environment, rather than vice versa, will
not only mark a significant step forward in man's scientific progress, but
may well provide a new and larger dimension for man's spirit as well. Copyright 1997 The New York Times
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